CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

The leaders of information technology companies reported lower numbers of women in leadership positions in comparison to their Fortune 500 counterparts (Catalyst, 2007). In 2006, the number of female senior managers in the high-tech industry was only up by 2 to 13% in comparison with 11% in 2002 (Anita Borg Institute, 2008). The lack of female personnel in the information technology field results in a reduced pool of information technology professionals (Diaz, Cloninger, & Barquet, 2008). The absence of women in technology leadership roles has repercussions on the economic well-being, productivity, preparedness, and competitiveness within an organization.

As a result of globalization, the leaders of information technology companies rely on a diverse workforce. Within the information technology field, recruiting has increased and the number of jobs has been growing since 2000, with few signs of slowing down (Commission on Professionals in Science and Technology [CPST], 2006). Data from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2008) indicated the number of computer software engineers will increase by 38% from 2006 to 2016 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2008). Workforce demands are high as a result of decreasing numbers of computer science graduates (Simard, Davis Henderson, Gilmartin, Schiebinger, & Whitney, 2008) and “the upcoming retirement of baby boomers” (Desvaux, Devillard-Hoellinger, & Meaney, 2008, p. 1).

Workers in nonmanagerial information technology positions, such as computer analysts, computer engineers, and systems administrators, attain a college degree in information systems, mathematics, computer science, computer engineering, or the physical sciences (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2008). Information technology management roles include the need for a bachelor’s degree and graduates with degrees with a core technology component receive preference (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2008). Graduate degrees include a technical component because an increasing number of information and computer system managers make business and technology decisions within organizations (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2008). Computer systems managers must have experience and practical skills if their educational background includes only a trade school or associate’s degree (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2008).

Although both women and men in mid-level technology positions are highly educated with degrees in either computer science or engineering, 77.1% of men have computer science degrees compared with 61.2% of women (Simard et al., 2008). Mid-level employees are individual contributors or managers with 10 to 20 years of work experience (Hewlett et al., 2008). McKinney, Wilson, Brooks, O’Leary-Kelly, and Hardgrave (2008) noted that in corporate America, fewer women achieve the same job status as men and make up 26% of information technology workers. Women are outnumbered at a rate of six men to one woman in leadership positions (McKinney et al., 2008).

Despite increased opportunities in information technology, the employment trends indicate the percentage of women in technology professions has declined since 2000 (Foust-Cummings, Sabattini, & Carter, 2008). Women with information technology or computer science degrees are in shorter supply than men with information technology degrees because the proportion of women earning computer science or information technology degrees has decreased in the past 10 years (Simard et al., 2008). In 2005, women earned only 22.2% of all computer science bachelor’s degrees compared with 37% in 1985 (National Science Foundation, 2008).

Minority women represent an undiscovered pool of information technology resources (Hailey, Erekson, Becker, & Thomas, 2005) but have not been able to advance in information technology professions, indicating a lack of interest in the information technology field as a result of societal norms and expectations (Nicholson, Hancock, & Dahlberg, 2007). The current research study included the identification of reasons for the underrepresentation of minority women in leadership roles in information technology in the United States and indicated suggestions and recommendations within which to educate management in providing support and encouragement for minority women to remain in the industry.

Chapter 1 includes an outline of the problem, purpose, and significance of the study. The section on the nature of the study includes a summary of the research method used. Chapter 1 also includes an introduction to the research question that served to evaluate the study population’s lived experiences. The theoretical framework includes a description of key issues, perspectives, and controversies in information technology regarding the decreased number of minority women in information technology leadership roles.

Background

An estimated 2.5 million information technology positions will be available from 2000 to 2010 because of the growth in the information technology roles needed to replace an estimated 331,000 workers leaving the workforce (Carayon, Schoepke, Hoonakker, Haims, & Brunette, 2006). Data from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2008) indicated a predicted increase of 13% to 307,000 computer system’s managers in 2016 from 264,000 in 2006. The turnover rates for female technology professionals are almost double that of men (Carayon et al.).

In 2006, of the 264,000 computer information systems managers, only 27.8% were women (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2008). A total of 9.63% of computer information system professionals are White women, 4.88% are Asian women, 2.16% are African American women, and 0.96% are women of Hispanic origin (National Science Foundation, 2008). American Indian and Alaskan Native women make up 0.06% of information systems professionals (National Science Foundation, 2008). Knowledge of the cultural, financial, and social factors affecting the retention and recruitment of minority women in information technology will help to increase the number of minority women in information technology roles and help organizational leadership meet the demands of the competition in global markets for workers from a diverse society (Burge & Suarez).

The current research study resulted in recommendations for the education of existing information technology leadership regarding support and encouragement of minority women to enter and stay in the information technology industry by addressing the theories of leadership and diversity. In a study of 353 Fortune 500 companies from 1996 to 2000, companies with a more gender-diverse senior management structure had a higher total return of shareholders and return on equity (“The Bottom Line,” 2004) than companies with less diverse teams. On average, the management teams of top-performing companies included more women (“The Bottom Line”). The market share of an organization with diverse personnel might increase, whereas that of a less diverse workforce might decrease (Jayne & Dipboye, 2004).

Diversity serves to foster innovation, creativity, improved group interaction, and enhanced organizational competitiveness; diversity represents a socially acceptable way of addressing gender and race issues (Jayne & Dipboye, 2004). Jayne and Dipboye contended that irrespective of the economic implications, increasing workforce diversity is the ethical and right course of action for corporate citizens in a multicultural society. To succeed with globalization, organizations must include a diverse workforce to deal effectively with an increasingly diverse customer base (Konrad, 2003).

The study included an analysis of the barriers minority women face in achieving managerial roles in information technology as a result of uncomfortable classroom environments (Allan & Madden, 2006), the leaky pipeline (Blickenstaff, 2005), and the perceived glass ceiling (Todd, Mardis, & Wyatt, 2005). The chilly classroom climate has also been discussed as a basis of bias and discrimination of girls and women because of existing societal perceptions (Allan & Madden). Blickenstaff introduced the metaphor of the leaky pipeline that “carries students from secondary school through university and on to a job in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM)” (p. 369). The glass ceiling functions to preclude women from rising as high as their male colleagues, even if the male colleague is less talented (Todd et al.).

The underrepresentation of women and minorities in leadership roles impacts the field of information technology. The current research study included an examination of the issue of students leaving the information technology profession specifically because of the chilly classroom climate (Allen & Madden, 2006) and the leaky pipeline (Blickenstaff, 2005). The research also included an examination of the impact of the glass ceiling as a barrier to minority women progressing as high as their male colleagues in an organization (Todd et al., 2005).

The lack of women’s involvement in the information technology workforce results in a reduced pool of information technology professionals, and the absence of women in technology leadership roles has repercussions on the economic well-being, productivity, preparedness, and competitiveness of an organization (Diaz et al., 2008). Senior management and executives must address the factors necessary to increase the number of minority women pursuing careers in information technology after school and provide support and encouragement to minority women to remain in the information technology industry. An increase in focus and attention is necessary to (a) attract and retain good-quality students the information technology courses and increase the number of information technology professionals, (b) offer the advantages provided by obtaining different viewpoints, and (c) promote gender equality (Cahoon, 2003). The research study resulted in insight into practices influencing internal policies and practices to attract, retain, and reward minority female employees and enable the effective handling of discrimination cases within an organization (Cahoon).

Problem Statement

Studies of diversity indicate women and minorities are underrepresented in the workplace (Blickenstaff, 2005), such as in the field of information technology. Specifically, minority women are underrepresented in leadership roles in information technology in the United States as a result of the societal perceptions of the lack of role models, academic preparation, attitude, and early experiences (Blickenstaff; Esch, 2005). The lack of female information technology personnel results in a reduced pool of information technology professionals and the absence of women in technology leadership roles has repercussions on an organization’s economic well-being, productivity, preparedness, and competitiveness (Diaz et al., 2008).

The current phenomenological qualitative study involved the exploration of the lived experiences (Moustakas, 1994) of minority women with leadership roles in information technology from a social and psychological perspective through the use of interviews with women of African American, Hispanic, and Asian descent in the San Francisco Bay area of California. The research study resulted in insight into practices influencing internal policies and practices to attract, retain, and reward female employees and enable the effective handling of discrimination cases within the organization. The promotion of gender diversity results in a culture in which women can advance to leadership roles (Catalyst, 2007).

Purpose Statement

The use of a qualitative phenomenological methodology allowed the participants to describe the phenomenon of the underrepresentation of minority women in information technology leadership roles and served to facilitate an understanding of participants’ psychological and social viewpoints (Groenewald, 2004). Groenewald and Kenyon (2004) posited the use of a phenomenological methodology can serve to elicit information about the lived experiences, insights, and perceptions of participants involved in the study.

Interviews involved note taking and recording on a digital recorder. Analysis of the data using interpretive phenomenological analysis (IPA) helped to determine common experiences, perceptions of the lived experiences, and knowledge associated with the phenomenon concerning the barriers contributing to a low number of minority women functioning as information technology leaders. The use of IPA helped to understand how people can make sense of life experiences in terms of meaning (Breakwell, 2004).

Significance of Study

By the year 2015, computer-related occupations will comprise 70% of the top 10 fastest growing occupations worldwide (Cahoon, 2003). Although demand might not exceed supply for computer professionals, the technology industry represents a motivating force in the current global economic climate (Cahoon). Cahoon contended organizational leadership can meet the demands of the information technology industry by facilitating the education of talented female and male students.

As defined by Turban, Leidner, McLean, and Wetherbe (2008), organizational learning involves developing new insights and knowledge that can influence an organization’s behavior. The use of organizational learning might help to enhance value to the customers, develop new opportunities, reduce mistakes and related costs, improve responsiveness and performance, increase productivity, and help fulfill societal responsibility (Latham & Vinyard, 2006). In addition to increasing the number of computer science practitioners, teachers, and students, increasing the number of women might result in a female viewpoint of the body of knowledge in the technology industry (Cahoon, 2003).

Female students leave the information technology pipeline when they apply to colleges and universities, as well as before graduating from postsecondary courses, and might choose another field as a career after graduation (Blickenstaff, 2005). A lack of employment opportunities, earnings, mentoring, balancing a career and family commitments, and a mismatch of interests and the requirements of a role in science are reasons why female information technology professionals leave the field (Preston, 2004). Changes in skills and knowledge result in temporary exits from the workforce that often becomes permanent because of a deterioration in skills (Preston). Information technology professionals could be driven by the need for gender equality to increase women’s representation in information technology disciplines. In view of the perception men tend to earn more than their female counterparts and have more prestigious jobs, improved access to information technology jobs for women could result in increased female participation because the field of information technology includes substantial opportunity for financial, innovative, and creative rewards (Cahoon, 2003).

Increasing the participation of minority women in information technology might result in the identification of solutions to increasing the representation of women in information technology management. The research study resulted in insight into how to reduce the attrition rate, improve the flow of information to female information technology workers, and make careers in information technology more appealing to minority women. The exploration of the body of knowledge resulted in recommendations to attract high-performing minority women to information technology leadership roles. Understanding the reasons for the exit rates of women in the information technology field can serve as a defense against attrition and might help to increase the attraction to information technology roles (Cooper, 2003).

Importance to Society

The analysis of the data from the study resulted in support for the creation of new strategies to serve high school and college students and provide leaders with guidelines to improve organizational knowledge regarding diversity (Howard, 2007). Diversity in the workplace serves as a competitive advantage through recruiting and retaining talented individuals, has an effect on the bottom line, results in marketing opportunities, and improved functions to assist organizational leadership in addressing the issues of discrimination (Espinoza, 2007). The research study resulted in a model for use in educating the existing information technology leadership on how to support and encourage minority women to enter and stay in the information technology industry. The results of the study also served to inform senior management and executives in the United States of the factors necessary to increase the number of minority women pursuing careers in information technology after school and educate management on how to provide support and encouragement for minority women to remain in the information technology industry.

Contribution to Leadership

From Academic Passion to Scholarly Opinion

The initial interest for the current study resulted from a perception of the low number of minority women in leadership roles in information technology in the United States. Further research into the topics resulted in the identification of scholarly studies regarding the phenomenon, and the elements discussed include but are not limited to the theories of diversity, the chilly classroom climate, the leaky pipeline, and breaking the glass ceiling. Increasing the number of women information technology workers of all racial backgrounds will help to enable organizational leadership to be competitive in the global marketplace (National Committee for Women in Informational Technology [NCWIT], 2008).

Nature of the Study

The current phenomenological research study included an examination of the perceptions and lived experiences of 20 minority women in information technology in the San Francisco Bay area of California and a focus on the minority women’s experiences and barriers faced. The study included the use of audio-taped and transcribed interviews. The use of a phenomenological search redesign served to guide the qualitative method used to analyze emerging themes.

The findings from the interviews resulted in recommendations for the education of leadership on how to support and encourage minority women to enter and remain in the information technology industry and an understanding of their experiences and perspectives. The use of a qualitative phenomenological design allowed participants to describe the phenomenon from their own viewpoints (Groenewald, 2004). The use of phenomenology allows for the understanding of psychological and social aspects from the participants’ perspective (Moustakas, 1994).

The study included an exploration of the central phenomenon captured from the participants’ perspectives and the participants’ reflections concerning how their experiences might differ from that of persons of other races and gender. The phenomenological qualitative study resulted in valuable insights into factors contributing to the low number of minority women functioning in information technology leadership positions. Moustakas’s (1994) interviewing strategies served to guide the research study. Moustakas (1994) wrote that phenomenology focuses on the descriptions of experiences and not the analysis or explanations. The descriptions keep the phenomenon alive by retaining the original properties, and qualities. Describing the experience enhances the meaning and retains the actual nature and spirit of the experience.

The use of phenomenological methods was appropriate for the current research study because of the scarcity of literature indicating potential causes of the decline of women in information technology, especially in senior positions. The use of phenomenology serves to add description and meaning to everyday events (Van Manen, 2002) and eliminate prejudgments based on beliefs, customs, and prejudices of everyday experiences (Moustakas, 1994). Through a collection of descriptions of the lived experiences of 20 minority women in technology and the identification of emergent themes indicated through the conversational analysis of the interviewees, the current study resulted in a textural-structural synthesis of the meanings and essence of the experiences.

The intent of qualitative studies is often to derive information regarding why a lack of literature exists, whereas the intent of quantitative studies regards a problem for which an abundance of literature exists (Creswell, 2004; Denzin & Lincoln, 2005). Because the current study included an exploration of the lived experiences of the participants, a qualitative method was the appropriate choice. Qualitative phenomenological studies usually result in rich and vivid discussions (Moustakas, 1994).

The use of a quantitative method would not have resulted in bringing the essence of the interviewee’s experiences to life as effectively as the qualitative method. A quantitative method is close-ended and was not appropriate for answering the research question because the research study included an analysis of the lived experiences of the interview participants. The intent of a quantitative study is to confirm or disaffirm the tested hypotheses (Creswell, 2004). A quantitative study includes the application of scientific and statistical methods in the analysis.

One factor to consider when evaluating the scientific merit of a quantitative study is whether the approach to the study reflects the approach to the research problem. According to Creswell (2004), the investigator in a quantitative research study uses surveys and collects data on predetermined instruments to obtain statistical data. Quantitative research studies explain problems and implementing a quantitative research study requires training or familiarity with “measurement, statistics, and quantitative data collection approaches such as correlation, or survey techniques” (Creswell, p. 54).

Qualitative studies such as the current research study involve the acceptance of multiple meanings for social and historical experiences for the intent of designing and establishing theory, patterns, or participatory methods (Creswell, 2004; Denzin & Lincoln, 2005). Creswell contended that qualitative studies focus on the complexities of phenomena that occur in natural settings. Denzin and Lincoln reported that the qualitative researcher asks broad and open-ended questions to encourage the study participants to share their views about the problem.

Qualitative studies include a review for a detailed understanding of the problem. Consideration of the merit of qualitative research includes taking into account the knowledge of the target audience and their familiarity with the method of research. Qualitative research methods have become more accessible as a method through the availability of books, articles, workshops, and conferences (Creswell, 2004). Researchers might need to educate their audiences on the research method when using qualitative research methods (Creswell).

Research Question

The purpose of the current qualitative phenomenological study was to explore the lived experiences of 20 professional women of African American, Hispanic, and Asian descent working in companies in the San Francisco Bay area of California in information technology leadership positions to identify the themes challenging the societal perceptions of minority women in information technology careers. The focus of the research study was on minority women who have been able to achieve information technology leadership positions despite the uncomfortable classroom environments (Allan & Madden, 2006), the leaky pipeline (Blickenstaff, 2005), and the perceived glass ceiling (Todd et al., 2005). The following research question served to guide the current study: How do women employed in the information technology field report that the societal perceptions of a lack of role models, experience, or academic preparation have contributed to the underrepresentation of minority women in leadership roles in information technology? The snowball or chain sampling strategy functioned to identify human resource professionals in information technology and other individuals in similar professions who then recommended potential participants. The study included the first 20 individuals to respond.

Theoretical Framework

The elements of the current research study included the barriers minority women face in achieving leadership roles in information technology as a result of uncomfortable classroom environments, the leaky pipeline, and the perceived glass ceiling (Anderson, 2006; Blickenstaff, 2005; Todd et al., 2005). The glass ceiling is an invisible barrier that has hindered women from rising to the same job level as their male counterparts (Todd et al., 2005).

A discussion of the chilly classroom climate has served as a basis of bias and discrimination of girls and women because of existing societal perceptions (Allan & Madden, 2006). Blickenstaff (2005) introduced the metaphor of the leaky pipeline that takes the female students from secondary school through university to a career in STEM. The theoretical framework presented included an examination of the importance of the experiences of minority women along with a discussion of perspectives, issues, and controversies in the field with regard to affirmative action, stereotypes, and discrimination.

Theory of Diversity

Organizational leaders struggle to successfully manage and embrace employee differences that result in conflict, division, and dissolution or creativity, integrative insights, and innovation (Harrison & Klein, 2007). The use of the diversity theory has functioned to guide studies in differences in values, demographic variables, personality, skills, and pay. Research into diversity theories has increased from 19 diversity investigations in 1988 to 134 in 2003 (Harrison & Klein). The leaders of information technology companies often promote workers to a leadership role based on technical expertise instead of managerial capabilities; management does not always provide newly promoted workers with adequate training on issues involving diversity (Catalyst, 2007). Continuous development serves to drive the technology sector; the development of people and management of talent are as important as providing technical training and development (Catalyst, 2007).

Diversity can result in tangible implications for an organization’s performance; a better financial performance is likely to result when an organization includes several women in senior-level positions than when the organization does not have many women in senior-level positions (Desvaux et al., 2008). Hiring and retaining women helps to increase an organization’s talent pool (Desvaux et al.). Research indicates the need for greater diversity among organizational leaders because organizations with a higher percentage of women in management positions have better financial and organizational management than companies with a lower percentage of women managers (Desvaux et al.). The leaders of organizations that include gender and cultural diversity are able to recruit and retain talented workers and meet organizational goals. Desvaux et al. reported that in study by the European Commission, 58% of the companies with diversity programs demonstrated higher productivity due to improved efficiency and employee motivation and 62% of the companies reported that the programs helped attract and retain talented workers.

Leadership Theory

People are the most important commodity in the corporate world (Stonecipher, 2000). Even with the undeniable dependence on computers and technology, individuals must interact with people to ensure that all systems and applications function correctly. A motivated and innovative workforce is one of the main attributes of a company’s competitive advantage, regardless of its size. The identification of leaders is based on position; leaders are part of a hierarchy. Employees look to leaders to know what to do or for direction when workers cannot solve problems themselves (Doyle & Smith, 2006).

Leadership and managerial roles might overlap based on vision, managerial ability, knowledge, and skills; leaders transform and managers perform (Doyle & Smith). Leadership is the art, act, or function of going before or showing the way (Weinstein, 2004). Leaders must present a vision depicting the direction of an organization and provide a guiding beacon to steer employees toward goals with clarity (D. Neeley, personal communication, March 14, 2006). Information technology management is a management function and not a leadership issue. For leadership to be effective, management must know how well teams and departments are doing (Denning, 2004).

In an address on leadership, Hodges (2005) asserted leaders who “adhere to eternal principles, such as integrity, character, honesty, morality, spirituality, compassion, perseverance, loyalty, and respect for human dignity can become up to 500% more effective as leaders” (p. 623). To achieve and maintain effective leadership skills, leaders must work with teams to communicate the organizational vision, inspire others to work together to create a new vision, evaluate and monitor the project’s progress, and understand the current reality by paying attention to situations as they occur (N. L. Luftman, Bullen, Liao, Nash, & Neumann, 2004). Springett (2004) discussed the need for senior managers to redefine their firm’s corporate purpose in response to the growing number of corporate scandals. Studies indicate the importance of ethics to leaders (Springett).

The formal measurement of innovation as a leadership quality is also possible. Organizational leaders should pay attention to the organization’s innovation culture (D. Neeley, personal communication, March 14, 2006). Looking forward into the 21st century, innovation is the key to a company’s ability to compete and stay successful. To encourage innovation across the company, management must develop transformational leaders and provide formal ways of learning and sharing knowledge regarding the new advances in technology, enabling the achievement and maintenance of a company’s competitive advantage.

A transformational leader is a change agent. The special qualities that comprise a transformational leader serve to create a distinction between followers and leaders (Doyle & Smith, 2006). The term “transformational innovation” describes the transition from operating in a known format compared to one that is and potentially chaotic and unknown (Denning, 2005). The transition requires leaders who can help steer the organization when dealing with the unfamiliar and includes the ability to deploy an array of leadership narrative tools to persuade people to change, work together, transfer knowledge, and envision a compelling new future (Denning).

The Chilly Climate in the Classroom

Awareness of the way in which communication can result in an improved classroom climate can serve to increase the number of underrepresented groups actively participating in classes and shape the students’ beliefs about classroom behavior starting with academic careers and continuing through their professional careers (Barker & Garvin-Doxas, 2005). A discussion of the chilly classroom climate has been a basis of bias and discrimination of girls and women because of existing societal perceptions (Allan & Madden, 2006). Allan and Madden used a mixed method research to sample 394 students using focus groups to discuss whether a chilly classroom climate is the main reason why women are at a disadvantage in the classroom. Student and faculty behavior were important variables in the college climate and teaching (Allan & Madden).

The number of undergraduate students entering information technology careers in the United States and Canada has declined and fewer females enter information technology careers than do males (Nicholson et al., 2007). In the United States and other industrialized nations, research indicated unsupportive educational environments reinforced by obstructive societal norms and expectations have contributed to the lack of interest and involvement of minority females in information technology (Nicholson et al.). Although students might stay in school, attention to ensuring science graduates are successful in their chosen careers, regardless of gender and race, is lacking (Preston, 2004).

Minority women are underrepresented in information technology (Simard et al., 2008). Of all computer science bachelor’s degrees, African American women earned 6.14%, Latina women received 3%, Native American women earned 0.4%, and Asian women received 1.7% (National Science Foundation, 2008). Cahoon (2003) asserted the number of women represented in the information technology field will continue to decline if the leaders of colleges and universities fail to attract female computer science students. As the growth in programs is slowing, institutional leadership must focus on the attraction and retention of female students (Cahoon). Despite a reduction in enrollment, demands on the workforce will continue to grow, irrespective of any decline in available jobs (Cahoon).

The Leaky Pipeline

Blickenstaff (2005) introduced the metaphor of the leaky pipeline that takes the female students from secondary school through university to a career in STEM. The research study included an examination of the specific issue of minority female students leaving the information technology profession. Female students leave the information technology pipeline when they apply to colleges and universities, as well as before graduating from postsecondary courses (Blickenstaff). Blickenstaff asserted the leakage results in a “sex-based filter that removes women from the stream and leaves men to arrive at the end of the pipeline” (p. 359).

The Glass Ceiling

Sexism still exists and, once acknowledged, open discussion of the issues associated with gender inequality can ensue (Anderson, 2006). Management who will address the issues of sexism benefits the organization and affirms the value of the female workforce to an organization’s success (Anderson). The presence of female managers has an impact on gender wage inequality (Cohen & Huffman, 2007). Not only are women more supportive of efforts toward workplace equality in principle, but also manager bias against such efforts among women is weaker. The presence of female managers should serve to promote gender equality if the managers have the power to do so (Cohen & Huffman).

Women in Information Technology

Although the number of men and women in information technology jobs has increased since 2000 (CPST, 2006), women and minorities in the United States continue to be underrepresented in information technology (Zarrett & Malanchuk, 2005). McKinney et al. (2008) asserted in corporate America, fewer women achieve the same job levels as men, with women making up only 26% of information technology professionals in the United States and being outnumbered by a ratio of six men to one woman in leadership positions (D’Agostino, 2003; NCWIT, 2007). The representation of women in information technology is considered low because nearly 47% of the working population in the United States is female (Lemons & Parzinger, 2007).

Various reasons exist in support of the low percentage: for example, a perception exists women do not have as high an interest in the hard sciences as men and as a result of their educational experience women are less likely to pursue a career in information technology (McKinney et al.). Women are less comfortable working in a predominantly male environment (McKinney et al.). Although men were substantially more likely than women to identify liking technology and computers as a key motivator for pursuing a career in information technology, women cited job security, ease of entry, and flexible work hours as primary reasons for entering the information technology profession (McKinney et al., 2008). Fewer women remain in the profession as a result of a lack of attachment to the information technology profession based on career satisfaction, professional identification, and the intention to leave (McKinney et al.).

Discrimination

Employers might use an employee’s education and experience as a measure of productivity (Ambwani & Dyke, 2007). An employee’s gender and cultural background also functions as a cue that might result in an incorrect assessment and lower the employee’s perceived value; if no difference in the productivity between genders exists, lowering an employee’s perceived value represents a form of bias (Boon, 2002). Becker’s (1970) theory discussed the observed income of a female employee calculated as the employee’s value minus the discrimination coefficient. If the observed income theory is applicable to minority women, then an employer with an inherent dislike of females and minorities might request compensation based on an employee’s gender and ethnicity. The theory indicated wage gaps might be a result of discriminatory attitudes. Female immigrants earned 71 to 79% of the salary of native-born men in the United States mostly as a result of gender discrimination (Ambwani & Dyke, 2007).

Women of all racial groups tend to work predominantly in roles historically geared toward females and receive lower pay than men of all racial groups (Dickerson, 2006). In comparison to minority men and White women, Latina and Black women predominantly occupy lower level positions of female occupations, with White women working in higher status positions and, as a result, in higher paid managerial positions. One third of college-educated Black women have clerical jobs, and women of color tend to face difficulty in trying to advance their careers and move to higher paying jobs (Dickerson). The probability of Black women moving out of clerical work is less than that of White women. Although Black women with additional training and education have increased earnings, the percentage increase is less than for White women (Dickerson).

According to Dickerson (2006), the statistics for clerical workers were much lower for Latina women with a high concentration in farm or blue-collar jobs and Latina women are the least likely of all minority women to pursue a profession. In a study of equally qualified candidates of different racial backgrounds applying for the same job, employers demonstrated a preference for White male personnel and reluctance in hiring workers from other racial backgrounds, indicating women of color face barriers in finding leadership roles (Dickerson, 2006). The leadership of information technology companies reported lower numbers of women in leadership positions in comparison to their Fortune 500 counterparts (Catalyst, 2007). In 2006, the increase in the number of female corporate officers in the high-tech industry was only 2 to 13% in comparison to 11% in 2002 (Anita Borg Institute, 2008).

The culture in information technology companies does not function to support the advancement of women and tends to be exclusionary (Catalyst, 2007). Women face balancing the demands of work and career with family and personal responsibilities and feel isolated (Catalyst, 2007). Simard et al. (2008) noted that although the computer industry generates lucrative products, new technologies, and innovative thinking, information technology firms are behind other sectors in providing opportunities for women. A report published in 2007 indicated women make up a modest 13% of the board of directors at information technology Fortune 500 companies compared with 14.8% among all Fortune 500 companies (Catalyst, 2007). Of information technology professionals, 26.5% are women; only 8% are managers (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2008).

Stereotypes

Feminists have identified men’s monopoly of information technology jobs as an important source of their power and women’s lack of technological skill as an important factor in women’s dependence on men (Toffoletti, 2004). The field of computing includes a perception of male domination. Parents and teachers communicate working with computers is for men and provide encouragement for boys to improve their computer skills, but do not develop the same interests in girls (Cahoon, 2003). Boys hence have an advantage over girls; girls develop an interest in computers later (Cahoon, 2003).

Lemons and Parzinger (2007) contended a man’s success often derives from his abilities and skill, whereas women’s success is often the result of luck. Bad luck is the attributed cause of a man’s failure in his tasks, whereas women’s failure is the result of low ability (Lemons & Parzinger). Women accept stereotypes, which therefore serve to influence the work or learning atmosphere. The stereotypes function to frame the assumptions and measurement of women’s performance (Ramsey & McCorduck, 2005). An employee with a traditional gender stereotype of a woman’s capabilities might attribute the success of a female in a predominantly male position to luck or government legislation such as the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission or affirmative action, rather than her ability to perform her job role (Lemons & Parzinger).

Counter Claims

Researchers have discounted the claims made regarding stereotyping, discrimination, the glass ceiling (Bernard, 2003), classroom climates (Cahoon, 2003), and the leaky pipeline (Blickenstaff, 2005), citing widespread success of women in the technical field as a whole. Both male and female students have equal opportunity to study and work in any discipline (CPST, 2006). The number of U.S. degrees awarded in the science and engineering fields increased 258% from 239,333 in 1966 to 616,463 in 2004 (CPST, 2006). Since 1985, the number of underrepresented minorities earning computer science degrees has increased, but a gap in educational attainment between underrepresented minorities and Whites remains (CPST, 2006).

Definitions

The following definitions include an explanation of the operational meanings associated with important terms used in the current research.

Affirmative action. Affirmative action is an impartial vehicle for eliminating and breaking down unwarranted barriers to opportunity for historically disadvantaged groups (Carvajal, 2006) based on race.

African Americans (Blacks). African Americans are Americans whose descendents come from the continent of Africa and whose history dates back thousands of years (Horton & Horton, 2005). A U.S. Census Bureau (2009) report indicated in 2007a total of 12.2% of the population was of Black or African ancestry.

Asian Americans. Asian Americans hold ancestral connections to the continent of Asia and the Pacific Islands. Asian-Pacific Americans include, but are not limited to, people from China, the Philippines, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, Asian-Indian backgrounds, Laos, Cambodia, Hmong, Thailand, Hawaii, Pakistan, Samoa, and Guam (Pilk and Odo, 2002). Each group claims its own distinct culture and heritage. According to a report from the U.S. Census Bureau (2009), 4.2% of the U.S. population was Asian as of 2007.

Bias in academic preparation. Bias in academic preparation is the gender differences in test results and successful test completion based on gender in the following tests: Scholastic Aptitude Test, National Assessment of Educational Progress, Law School Admissions Test, and Medical College Admissions Test (Blickenstaff, 2005).

Discrimination or differential treatment. Discrimination or differential treatment is “the decision-making process related to a specific opportunity or position, particularly when there are formalized rules that confer advantage to a class rather than individuals” (Martin, 1994, p. 390).

Diversity. Diversity is “the distributions of differences among the members of a unit with respect to a common attribute, X, such as tenure, ethnicity, conscientiousness, task attitude, or pay” (Harrison & Klein, 2007, p. 1200). The fundamental definition of diversity has changed for organizations. The original definition included a focus on legally protected attributes including age, gender, and race but now includes all human differences (Jayne & Dipboye, 2004).

Gender role fulfillment. Gender role fulfillment is the perception of societal expectations of male and female roles. The idea boys and girls are on opposite sides seems to affect children’s ideas of appropriate career goals and aspirations (Blickenstaff, 2005; Esch, 2005).

Glass ceiling. The glass ceiling is the gender inequality in the workplace depicted by men receiving higher pay and promotions compared with women in the same roles and of similar education and levels of experience. The glass ceiling is an unseen barrier between women and management or high status positions (Cohen & Huffman, 2007).

High tech. The term high tech describes occupations, product, and industries that include the use of state-of-the-art technologies. The management of high-tech firms apply scientific and technical knowledge to solve problems and conduct research (Anita Borg Institute, 2008).

Hispanic American (Latina). Hispanics have mixed ancestry with people of European, Indian, and African descent. Hispanic people have lived in North America for more than 500 years (Ruiz, 2006). Hispanics share historical backgrounds and cultural traditions with the Spanish language and originate from countries such as Mexico, Puerto Rico, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and Central and South America. Hispanic origin and race are considered two different concepts because Hispanics might be of any origin (Centers for Disease Control, 2008). A total of 14.8% of the U.S. population was of Hispanic/Latino origin in 2007 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2009).

Leaky pipeline. The leaky pipeline is the process through which the number of women continuing undergraduate studies in STEM continues to decrease, manifesting through their presence in professional job roles. The number of women and minorities in science and engineering job roles is less than the number who obtained undergraduate science and engineering degrees (National Science Foundation, 2008). The pipeline is the set of education, employment, and achievements necessary in obtaining a science career and serves to conceptualize when women and minorities leave the information technology field (Zarrett & Malanchuk, 2005).

Role model. A role model is a professional minority woman in science, math, or engineering roles viewed as a positive example to students pursuing a career in STEM (Blickenstaff, 2005).

STEM. Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (Blickenstaff, 2005).

Technofeminism. Technofeminism is a summary of previous discussions aligned with debates in the field that results in the encouragement of different viewpoints in the relationship between gender relations and technology. The framework includes an explanation of the technological change process as part of gender power negotiations. The goal of technofeminism is to empower women to embrace technology and link the process to discussions of power (Toffoletti, 2004).

Assumptions

An assumption of the current research study was the leadership of information technology organizations would not be willing to hire increased numbers of minority women to increase opportunities for job advancement into top information technology positions and an additional assumption indicated the participants would honestly share experiences and perceptions during the interviews.

Scope, Limitations, and Delimitations

Limitations include the attitudes and emotions inherent in the participants of the study. Working with people who have struggled to obtain their positions might involve complex feelings and reactions to the questions raised during the interviews. Limitations to the current study included the subjectivity of the participants’ experiences and the length of time allowed for the interviews. Another limitation involved the honesty of the participants during the course of the interview. The study included every effort to bracket the feelings and insights of the researcher to avoid the selection and interpretation of words based on the interviewer’s own experience.

The scope of the research study included information technology companies in the United States, including companies with overseas operations. The study included a focus on minority women in leadership positions in information technology companies, delimiting the study to a specific group of leaders within the industry. Corollary delimitations also included the economic recession in which the study occurred, which resulted in lay-offs and hiring freezes in many industries. The implementation of affirmative action has resulted in a negative environment for minority men and women in management and hence a frustrating situation for minorities who believe they do not receive recognition for their talents or skills (Pettigrew & Martin, 1987).

Summary

The purpose of the current qualitative phenomenological study was to explore the lived experiences of 20 professional women of African American, Hispanic, and Asian descent working in companies in the San Francisco Bay area of California in information technology leadership positions to identify the themes challenging the societal perceptions of minority women in information technology careers. The research study resulted in support for the creation of new strategies to serve high school and college students and guidelines for leaders to improve their organizational knowledge and skills to deal with diversity (Howard, 2007). The research study resulted in insight into reducing the attrition rate, improving the flow of information to female information technology workers, and making careers in information technology more appealing to minority women. The new insights also resulted in enhancements to attract high-performing women to technology leadership roles. An understanding of the reasons for the exit rates of women could result in a defense against attrition and become part of the strategy to increase the attraction to information technology roles (Cahoon, 2003).

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

Chapter 2 presented a review of the literature relating to the underrepresentation of minority women in information technology. The study involved the results of interviewing of 20 professional women of African American, Hispanic, and Asian descent working in companies in the San Francisco Bay Area of California in information technology leadership positions. The literature review provided studies on the influence of diversity on an organization’s performance and current theories on why minority women are underrepresented in information technology leadership roles as a result of elements such as a chilly classroom climate, a leaky pipeline, and the glass ceiling. Chapter 2 provided a review of the literature around the theoretical frameworks, strategies, and recommendations for colleges, universities, and employers. The chapter addressed theories, recent statistics, and gaps in the literature concerning women in information technology.

In 2006, of the 264,000 computer information systems managers, only 27.8% were women (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2008). According to the National Science Foundation (2008), 9.63% of the computer information system professionals are White women, 4.88% are Asian women, 2.16% are African American women, and 0.96% are women of Hispanic origin. American Indian and Alaskan Native women make up 0.06% of information systems professionals (National Science Foundation, 2008). The lack of women’s participation in the information technology workforce has resulted in a reduced pool of information technology professionals, and the absence of women in technology leadership roles has repercussions on an organization’s economic well-being, productivity, preparedness, and competitiveness (Diaz et al., 2008). The research study identified ways to increase women’s representation in technology (Cahoon, 2003).

Documentation

The literature review involved a combination of materials researched through the University of Phoenix Library databases. The databases accessed were EBSCOhost, ProQuest, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). The search generated scholarly books, peer-reviewed articles, and journal articles. Statistical information was taken from the National Science Foundation, U. S. Department of Labor, and special reports on education and careers in science, technology, education, and mathematics.

The theoretical elements discussed included the glass ceiling, the chilly classroom climate, and the leaky pipeline which are based on the theories of affirmative action, discrimination, stereotypes, and diversity. The research study focused on the underrepresentation of minority women in technology as a result of societal perceptions of the lack of role models, academic preparation, attitude and early experiences, and gender role fulfillment (Blickenstaff, 2005; Esch, 2005). The research study used a phenomenological design, specifically interviews, to explore the experiences of minority women leaders in information technology occupations and explain how the women were able to overcome the barriers they faced.

Historical Overview

The purpose of the qualitative phenomenological study was to explore the lived experiences of 20 professional women of African American, Hispanic, and Asian descent working in companies in the San Francisco Bay Area of California in information technology leadership positions to identify the themes that challenge the societal perceptions of minority women in information technology careers. In order to assess fully the degree to which the potential environments affect the professional progress and decision-making abilities of minority female leaders in information technology, the literature review identified (a) the components of technological organizations, such as their hierarchical structures and cultures; (b) the emergence of the factors that gave rise to the information technology profession; (c) women’s contributions to the technical profession; (d) affirmative action; (e) stereotypes; and (f) discrimination. The knowledge gave insight into which positions and strategic organizational practices have been partially inaccessible to minority women leaders in information technology.

Organizational Structure

Structural and cultural frames are methods of viewing an organization. The structural frame simplifies the view of an organization’s roles and relationships. Using a structural frame to view interactions will not help management to obtain a clear view of how employees are feeling or thinking. The cultural frame encourages a view of organizations as patterns of shared meaning (Johnson-Cramer, Parise, & Cross, 2007).

Jones (2004) defined an organization as a tool used by people to coordinate actions in order to obtain something desired or valued. The structure of an organization facilitates effective responses to problems of coordination and motivation. Organizational structure is a system of tasks and workforce relationships that oversee worker’s activities and use tools and resources to achieve the organization’s goals (Jones, 2004). Organizational structure can be managed through the process of organizational design and change and is viewed as an instrument which can be modified as necessary to improve performance (Scott, 2003).

Organizational Culture

The culture of an organization is a critical enabler to the organization’s direction and internal environment (Latham & Vinyard, 2006). Organizational culture, purpose, vision, and value are the key to an organization’s success but detailed procedures on information sharing might not fit if the organization has an open and creative operating style (Latham & Vinyard). Performance is maximized by addressing organizational culture and processes and improving internal communication of corporate strategy (Jin & Price, 2005). Organizations can organize information technology in a way that will deliver the most value to the company, and the options available have increased with the introduction of electronic communications (J. N. Luftman, 2004). When provided with pay and benefit schemes, bonuses, training programs, and a satisfactory work environment, employees are more productive (Van Marrewijk, 2004). Van Marrewijk continued that in order to retain superior talent, organizations must meet the employees’ needs to ensure the employees are in alignment with the corporation’s values, mission, and vision.

A research study showed that over an 11-year period, companies that emphasized all stakeholders, including employees, customers, and stockholders, and focused on leadership development, grew four times faster than companies that did not (Van Marrewijk, 2004). Companies that consistently focused on building strong corporate cultures over a period of several decades outperformed companies that did not by a factor of six and outperformed the general stock market by a factor of 15 (Van Marrewijk).

The Technological Organization

Computers were initially described as number crunchers that supported business financial and accounting functions but have expanded to support a wider range of business operations that include supplier and customer relationships (J. N. Luftman, 2004).

Information technology has been at the center of American innovation for the past 50 years, and will undoubtedly continue as a critical innovation driver for some decades to come . . . there is growing consensus among politicians, academics, and executives that innovation is the key to maintaining out country’s competitive edge. (NCWIT, 2008, p. 3)

According to Luftman, the use of computers expanded with the reduction in cost and size of departmental systems, leading to computer power distribution developed with the emergence of minicomputers. Marketing, distribution, and manufacturing applications enhanced and supported business processes and local area networks, wireless, and the Internet have extended boundaries to customers, potential customers, and vendors (J. N. Luftman, 2004). Using automation, data warehousing, groupware, and enterprise systems, information technology can reduce costs along existing organizational boundaries. The cost savings will impact the organization’s bottom line while making the organizational structure more efficient. The flow of information provided by technology systems can protect the organizational structure for adverse changes and reduce the environmental and task risks (Phelps, 2007).

The evolution of information technology has led to the technology department supporting an organization’s business operation, customer relationship management, supplier management, advertising, content management, and payroll. In defining the role of information technology, technology teams are a necessary function, and the successful management of the department is to provide a competitive advantage to the organization as part of the business strategy (J. N. Luftman, 2004).

The Chief Information Officer (CIO)

The chief information officer (CIO) is also referred to as the chief technical officer (CTO). The CIO’s “role is a constant shape shifting routine that depends on the mode or circumstances of the company, the overall maturity of its structure, as well as the leadership culture” (Chan & Chia, 2008, p. 19). In a Gartner survey of 1500 CIOs, 85% of those interviewed saw substantial changes in their organization’s enterprise strategy over 3 years in order to meet business expectations (Chan & Chia).

Chan and Chia (2008) posited that to manage today’s global organization, the ClO has to be adept at various business skills including presentation, negotiation, and awareness of how each functional group operates. A CIO cannot have a singular technology focus as the entire information technology organization must share the same focus and vision to have an important role in the company’s growth (Chan & Chia). CIOs need to have strong industry, business, technical, and relationship-management skills (J. Luftman & Kempaiah, 2007).

According to Glaser (2005), as a member of the company’s executive committee, a CIO might report directly to the chief finance officer (CFO), chief executive officer (CEO), or the chief operating officer (COO), depending on how critical the role of information technology is to the company’s operations. The Information Management journal (2004) stated that reporting to the CFO instead of the CEO or COO was a step down for a CIO. In the financial services industry, employees may report to the CFO, but reporting to the CEO has been considered optimal because of the “important contribution of IT [information technology] to the organization's strategy and the need to have the IT agenda balanced across all areas of the organization” (p. 108). An organization’s CFO and CEO expect the CIO to be able to access information for effective and timely decision making and to be proactive in improving the company’s performance and business innovation (Chan & Chia, 2008).

An understanding between the CIO and CEO is critical to an organization’s efforts to leverage information technology. A frequency of communication leads to an increase in understanding or convergence and impacts the financial contribution of technology systems on the organization (Johnson & Lederer, 2005). The CIO must work to produce information that will maintain governance and function in the implementation of new business models (Chia, 2009) and be actively involved in strategy discussions (Glaser, 2005). Chia (2009), Chan and Chia (2008), and Chan (2008) have described varied role categorizations for the CIO.

Chia (2009) described three levels of CIO with the first level of CIO taking care of information technology in general. At the second level, the CIO is one who has an understanding of the market and industry, and the level three CIOs are able to anticipate and take advantage of trends that benefit the organization. Chan and Chia (2008) described four archetypes of CIOs with different activities, performance metrics, and time allocations: Services CIO, Embedded CIO, Portfolio CIO, and Customer CIO. The Services CIO provides information technology services across the organization and manages vendors and information technology team units. The Customer CIO works with the company’s partners and external customers to provide information-technology-enabled services and products. An Embedded CIO works with colleagues outside the information technology organizations and focuses on new product development, executing business process strategy, compliance, and innovation. The Portfolio CIO’s role is to manage non- information-technology operations.

A study by the Computer Science Corporation’s Leading Edge forum (Chan, 2008) placed CIOs into one of four categories based on character and experience: paratrooper, consultant, professional, and executive. The paratrooper is described as an independent manager who has been recruited into an organization from the outside when the organization requires a major change. The paratrooper stays at the organization for 3 to 5 years until the major project is completed, whereas the consultant CIO is brought in to engineer the organizational changes. The professional CIO has worked his or her way to the top of the organization based on merit and performance, and the executive CIO is considered to be a general manager promoted from within the organization that the CEO has assigned to get an information technology operation on track (Chan).

Providing a high performance business platform depends on both users and information system providers having realistic expectations (Chia, 2008). The CIO is tasked with understanding the business's core focus and prioritizing users' needs with respect to the information technology department’s budgets (Chia, 2008). According to Chan and Chia (2008), today’s CIO must refocus the CIO role and information technology ethos around the organization’s strategy and goals. Information technology leaders must be able to provide input in organizational areas beyond the information technology function in order to be included in making strategic decisions. The CIO is expected to promote innovation and develop responses to the technological shifts in the market.

Women and Technology

A review of the state of women’s lives and education in the past provides insight into the factors that may affect women’s self-esteem and confidence and steer them away from nontraditional careers. Until the late 19th century, women were discouraged from participating in post-secondary education and public roles (Frize, 2006). Women still perceive men as having a superior mind and abilities, and as a result, many women do not work to achieve their full potential (Frize). Frize posited that as a result of restructuring in English schools during the 1860s boys focused on science and mathematics while girls were taught the classics. Fewer girls studied physics, advanced mathematics, and computer courses, the requirements for computer science and engineering majors in the university. Women were not completely absent from scientific and engineering, having studied mathematics and science throughout history but were perceived as the exception while confirming that a thorough education is wasted on a majority of women. When a woman did succeed, the consensus was that she was supported by a father, brother, or husband (Frize).

Computer historians focused on achievements in computer hardware in the past, and as such, women’s historical involvement in computers has not been publicized. With a lack of access to resources and training made available to women, men have been inventors of machines throughout the history of computing. The focus on hardware has reduced the role of women in computing (Abbate, 2003). In the history of computer science, women have been involved in software development, academia, and applications. During the Second World War, women were programmers and software developers at companies such as Ferranti (Frize, 2006).

Society tends to fashion the training, career options, recognition, and advancement opportunities available to men and women. Many women may have entered the computing field through indirect routes and do not have formal training. Female workers with children have had to strategize for an effective balance of work and family responsibilities and demonstrate creativity in applying their talents to the changing needs of computing while balancing their many professional and personal commitments (Abbate, 2003). Increasing the number of women information technology workers of all racial backgrounds will prevent the United States from “having an economic engine that does not have the requisite labor to be competitive in the global marketplace” (NCWIT, 2008, p. 5).

Affirmative Action

The 1980 census found that roughly 24.1% of the entire African American labor force was located in the broad white-collar category of “technical, sales, and administrative support compared with 29.6% of the White labor force” (Pettigrew & Martin, 1987, p. 45). Although critical limitations to the successful record exist, the achievements are considerable and governmental actions against racial discrimination achieved much of the gain from affirmative action (Pettigrew & Martin, 1987). Pettigrew and Martin posited that affirmative action in employment is essential for further progress in eroding racial discrimination, but the ways in which the affirmative action programs have often been administered have placed a heavy situational burden on those whom the programs are designed to benefit. In the two decades since 1960, African Americans have achieved major employment gains, and much of the progress is a direct result of such governmental action as affirmation action programs (Pettigrew & Martin).

The affirmative action programs created new interracial work situations that attempted to operate under norms of racial equality that are new to most organizations in the United States (Pettigrew & Martin, 1987). Pettigrew and Martin stated the problems of affirmative action exacerbated racial difficulties by reflecting the modern forms of racial prejudice that, in comparison to traditional anti-Black bigotry, are more subtle, indirect, and even ostensibly nonracial. Affirmative action programs are designed to make amends for history of race and gender discrimination and proactively prevent any form of discrimination from occurring currently or in the future (Jayne & Dipboye, 2004).

Carvajal (2006) described affirmative action as an impartial vehicle for eliminating and breaking down “unwarranted barriers to opportunity for historically disadvantaged groups” (p. 515). A concern raised about affirmative action is that some organizations may not prioritize affirmation action programs that empowered minorities to seek jobs in large corporations in the 1990s (Hanson, 2004). In contrast to the positive impact of affirmative action, Carvajal asserted that affirmative action has been described as an inflexible vehicle that provides underperformers with unfair prerogatives. The effect is a stigmatization of the disadvantaged groups and a waste of resources based on an ineffective program. “The arguments and counter arguments are so contradictory that the viability of policy decisions often has to be decided by the courts” (Carvajal, p. 516).

Stereotypes

Parents and teachers perceive computing to be a male-dominated field and communicate working with computers is for men, providing the encouragement for boys to improve their computer skills, but not developing the same interests in girls (Cahoon, 2003). The early experience gained by boys gives them a head start on girls, who often develop their interest in computers at a later stage. Todd et al. (2005) posited that gender bias, although subtle, manifest as stereotypes that have an impact on attitudes and behavior. A teacher with conforming gender schema that mathematics and science should only be studied by boys will discourage a girl from studying mathematics and science subjects in school as a result of preconceived notions of girls’ abilities in the subject areas (Lemons & Parzinger, 2007).

According to Toffoletti (2004), feminists perceive the male dominance of the technology industry as a source of men’s power and the lack of technological skills has led to women’s dependence on men. Organizations lose the women when promotions are based on stereotypes and female employees do not have a say in the decision-making process (Catalyst, 2007). According to Catalyst, “as the job market in technology has become increasingly competitive, companies must provide a work environment where women can flourish and succeed” (p.1).

Browne and Kennelly’s (1999) study discussed employers’ pervasive misconception that Black female employees tend to be single mothers. The study revealed that this perception was incorrect as most of the Black women in the study did not have children under the age of 18. The fact that the presumption was incorrect does not count for anything when employers make uninformed hiring decisions and are not accountable as a result of the weak anti-discrimination laws (Dickerson, 2006). Selwyn (2007) asserted that gender stereotypes continue to be a frame of reference for information technology.

According to Ramsey and McCorduck (2005), female employees have lower performance grades when assigned to male dominated assignments, resulting in lower salaries and fewer opportunities for promotion. Women's soft skills of nurturing, emotional expressiveness, and communication are undervalued as the soft skills are perceived to come naturally to women. In contrast, an adequate performance by men in demonstrating soft skills is considered exceptional, resulting in higher pay and faster promotions than for women (Ramsey & McCorduck).

Men are not expected to have communication and “people skills,” professional cultures are often tolerated that are highly, even grotesquely, competitive and frequently insensitive, juvenile, and offensive. While exceptions exist, behavior such as shouting and rudeness is often the norm, and asocial behaviors are accepted as the price for intellectual achievement. (Ramsey & McCorduck, p. 11)

Culture dictates male and female behavioral and emotional roles.

People discover behavior appropriateness at an early age and reject behavior that does not conform to their gender and the gender roles extend into their career choices (Lemons & Parzinger, 2007). Based on a survey of senior women executives concluding that 52% of information technology professionals are male, Lemons and Parzinger posited that male stereotyping resides in their preconceptions about women. Male employees with gender-schematic processing demonstrate gender-stereotyped behaviors toward female colleagues in the information technology workplace, creating a hostile working environment (Lemons & Parzinger).

Discrimination

According to Dickerson (2006), in the United States, women of all ethnic and racial groups work in predominantly female occupations and receive lower compensation than men of all races for the same level of work. Latina and Black women are particularly at a disadvantage in the labor market. The occupational differentiation of Hispanic American women from White women is higher than that of Blacks because Hispanic American women would most likely work in a different occupation than White women would (Dickerson). Dickerson noted that the weak anti-discrimination laws, society’s indifference, and the inability of education to eliminate the racial differences indicated that problems brought about by discrimination are not going away by themselves. Women and men differ in work orientation and behavior with the differences being associated with the contrast in life goals, the value placed in seeking consensus versus competitiveness, and the importance that men and women place on the work-life balance (Hakim, 2006). Feder (2005) noted that in physics, for example, women with comparable experience earn $3050 a year less than their male colleagues.

Dickerson (2006) asserted that gender and race differences exist. Men of all races earn more than their female counterparts (Dickerson). Of all the gender and race groups, Latina and Black women are the lowest wage earners. Additionally, although minority women work more hours each week, the employment statistics do not show the inequality and only account for the women who have full-time roles. The full-time workforce consists of the most advantages workers in comparison to marginal and vulnerable workers who are, disproportionately, minority workers (Dickerson). The inequality represents a dimension that understates the overall disparities in the labor market (Dickerson) and employment. The European Commission has adopted policy goals that will eliminate gender-based segregation by occupation and the 10% to 20% difference in pay between women and men insisting on an employment rate of 70% for women. The differences have been attributed to gender discrimination (Hakim, 2006), and the European Commission (2005) is encouraging academia and industry to hire and promote more women (Smaglik, 2004).

Woo’s (2000) study showed that “discrimination against Asian Americans is entrenched because of a corporate culture which stereotypes them, imposes a dual ladder, and systematically denies them mentoring opportunities or management training” (p. 76). Takei and Stakamoto (2008) stated that Asian Americans face an absence of recruitment programs, a system of evaluation that is biased, and a lack of informal networks. Corporate America impedes the upward mobility and advancement of Asian Americans.

Diversity

Diversity is described as “the distributions of differences among the members of a unit with respect to a common attribute, X, such as tenure, ethnicity, conscientiousness, task attitude, or pay” (Harrison & Klein, 2007, p. 1200). For many organizations, the original definition focused on legally protected attributes that include age, gender, and race but now includes all human differences (Jayne & Dipboye, 2004). Harrison and Klein proposed three distinct diversity types: separation, variety, and disparity. Separation refers to the diversity of members within the same unit and reflects the position in which members stand on a belief, orientation, value, or attitude. Variety is the difference in categories that reflect a unique knowledge source among the members of a unit and depicts information that provides unit members with the ability to differentiate one ano ther based on experience, training, or education. The third type is disparity that unit members use to depict the difference in the share of resources and reflects each unit member’s social worth (Harrison & Klein).

According to Sevo (2006), companies that are maximizing performance consist of a management and workforce. “Research shows that diverse work teams are more responsive to customer needs, incorporate multiple views and styles, and are more likely to have better thinking and decisions” (p. 3). With globalization, larger companies with international markets must employ workers who are familiar with the countries’ languages, laws, and cultures and adapt to the business practices (Malhotra, Majchrzak, & Rosen, 2007). Malhotra et al. continued,

Virtual teams are composed of individuals representing a rich diversity of stakeholders, experiences, functions, organizations, decision-making styles, and interests. The team’s ability to successfully innovate is in large part based on how well this diversity is understood, appreciated, and leveraged. (p. 63)

In a study of 353 Fortune 500 companies from 1996 to 2000, the companies with more gender-diverse top management teams had a higher Return on Equity (ROE) and Total Return of Shareholders (TRS) than the ones with less diverse teams. On average, top-performing companies had more women represented on their management teams (“The Bottom Line,” 2004). Organizations devote resources to diversity initiatives because of the belief that diversity is important for business and fosters financial success.

With a rapid growth in the minority workforce (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2004), the shift in labor market demographics will impact organizations on three levels. The first business case regarding diversity is that organizations must compete for the best talent pool available in a diverse workforce. The second argument is that in order to effectively serve a diverse customer base because of the global economy, an organization requires a diverse workforce an as such an organization can benefit from an increase in market share. Third, innovation, creativity, and improved group interaction, improves an organization’s competitive advantage (Konrad, 2003). Jayne and Dipboye (2004) posited that Konrad’s three arguments show that diversity is a more socially acceptable method of addressing gender and race issues; in a global economy, increasing the number of minorities has positive ethical and social implications.

With equal opportunity employment, an organization’s employment decisions such as promotion, hiring, and pay are made with consideration of an employee’s national origin, race, religion, color, or sex (Jayne & Dipboye). Synergies are the positive manifestation of cultural diversity. Possible outcomes of cultural diversity can be motivation, creativity, intercultural learning, division of labor by cultural strengths, and market orientation. Cultural diversity promotes conflict reduction and satisfaction among employees. Customer orientation and market access can be improved, and international success can be supported with the development of intercultural skills, higher creativity, better fulfillment of international tasks, and finally, a better international reputation (Koeppel, 2008).

According to Sevo (2006), despite the organizational advantages presented by the proponents of diversity, diversity has been described as inefficient and costly because of the costs required to accommodate the needs of diverse workers. In promoting diverse working environments, organizations must spend time and resources on flextime, telecommuting, family leave, and sick leave to accommodate the needs of the growing diverse workforce. Organizations have to train workers to be tolerant and sensitive to the needs of others (Sevo, 2006). Mamaghani (2006) argued that multinational companies may use telecommuting to work across borders. The organizations will use the skills of their workers in order to reduce the expense of training the resources in foreign countries.

Further research should provide insight into the steps that can be taken to encourage minority women to pursue a career in information technology and assume leadership roles. Based on the research in psychology, one is not able to come to the conclusion that a diverse group performs better than nondiverse groups because diversity may not lead to an improved organizational performance (Jayne & Dipboye, 2004). Fewer studies analyze the relationship between an organization’s diversity and performance in comparison to the studies into the impact of diversity on group level and individual performance (Jayne & Dipboye, 2004).

The Expectancy Value Model

The Expectancy Value Model (Eccles, 2005) demonstrated that an individual’s expectations, values, and interests influence his or her vocational and educational option and the individual’s choices are linked to the input of teachers, parents, and mentors, cultural norms, gender role fulfillment beliefs, and self perceptions (Eccles). Zarrett and Malanchuk (2005) investigated the social and psychological factors alongside the development pathway from eighth grade through to college that are behind female students’ decision to leave the computer science pipeline and the reason female students are removed from the pipeline.

Using Eccles’ (1994) expectancy value model, Zarrett and Malanchuk (2005) examined the psychological, structural, and social factors that influence students’ choice of studying information technology. Those factors directly affected student’s gender, race and parental information such as, education, occupation, academic achievement, and pretax income. Occupational choice is a process of cumulative development where early childhood experiences and adolescence influence youths’ career decisions (Zarrett & Malanchuk, 2005).

Zarrett and Malanchuk (2005) proposed that the proximal psychological factors of self-belief, self-concept, and enjoyment of software development are predictors of if a student will pursue an information technology career. Zarrett and Malanchuk continued that social influences that endorse negative schemas, such as references to geeks and social isolation, and positive schemas about information technology being good for the world, solving problems and encouraging young adults to pursue careers in information technology play a major role in an individual’s decision to pursue a career in information technology.

Barriers to Success for Women

Glass Ceiling

According to Greig (2007), if women were to negotiate on behalf of themselves as often as men do, they would advance as quickly as men and eliminate the underrepresentation of women in the top ranks of organizations. Woo’s (2000) definition of the glass ceiling is based on previous research, arguing that in the corporate hierarchy, Whites are at an advantage over minorities in being promoted to notable managerial positions. Minorities are at a disadvantage when being rewarded for the work done from the labor market and obtaining promotions to management roles with authority (Takei & Sakamoto, 2006).

Historically, women’s experiences have differed from men’s in information technology. Women in information technology job roles have had to ignore cultural messages about gender roles and discrimination. Women have made the most of education and job options to meet the need to balance work and family (Abbate, 2003). Gender differences exist in considering the pursuit of an information technology career within the higher echelons of the information technology industry. Although females consider pursuing careers in the information technology field, they eventually pursue the less profitable and less prestigious soft computer professions (Zarrett & Malanchuk, 2005).

An obstacle for women in obtaining leadership roles lies in the perception that women are inferior to men (Frize, 2006). Frize continued that when discussing leadership, researchers should look at the different levels and stages of careers, as the type of leadership role will vary at each stage.

For example, for school girls, leadership can mean being at the top of the class, being elected in student leadership roles, and noting the prizes, awards, and scholarships they receive. For university students, leadership may refer to leadership positions in student societies, being a trail blazer, or being an agent of change. For women professors, leadership could refer to tenure and promotion, being selected in an administrative position, such as department chair, dean, or research chair. Leading roles in scientific and professional associations and recognition in the form of awards or prizes are all aspects of leadership for women working in these fields. (Frize, p. 1)

Frize (2006) continued that gender issues can limit women's participation in science and engineering careers as women’s contributions have been ignored throughout history. Research shows that the problem still exists. In a study by Wenneras and Wold (1997), female award recipients had 2.5 times more publications of relevance than their male counterparts with the same award. The study showed that men had a higher success rate of 75% and the women were under-estimated with a success rate of 40% (Wenneras & Wold, 1997).

According to Todd et al. (2005), the challenges to women achieving leadership roles in technology have included the lack of female role models, gender bias, and a lower salary in comparison to their male counterparts. In the history of computer science, women have been involved in software development, academia, and applications. During the Second World War, women were programmers and software developers at companies such as Ferranti. Since the war, women have been told that they can do a man’s job, have a family, and manage a successful career, yet women are still having difficulty in making the same strides as their male counterparts because of gender bias and the personal choices made in their efforts to balance career and family (Todd et al.).

The glass ceiling is an invisible barrier that has often made it extremely difficult for women to rise as high as their male counterparts, even if the male counterpart may be less talented . . . We call it the frosted glass ceiling because it is not unbreakable, but we have historically had difficulty seeing through it. (p. 382)

Although 45% of today’s workforce is composed of females, women only represent 15% of Fortune 500 officers (Todd et al.).

In a study on the challenges facing African American women in the workplace, African American women continue to face barriers in their carrier advancement (Catalyst, 2004). African American women faced barriers that include negative stereotypes based on race; questions on their ability, credibility, and authority; as well as a lack of institutional support. The situation is described as being a double outsider or double jeopardy (Catalyst, 2004), which differs from the experience of African American males and White females who share either race or gender with their colleagues and managers. African American women tend to be excluded from informal social networks and do not have amicable relationships with their White female colleagues. The study involved a survey of 963 African American women in Fortune 1000 companies (Catalyst, 2004).

With employment in managerial occupations used as a measure of managerial authority, minorities are underestimated and as such, placed in lower levels of management as a result of a glass ceiling on their career progression (Takei & Sakamoto, 2008). Takei and Sakamoto discussed previous studies that have applied the glass ceiling hypothesis for Asian Americans, illustrating that Asian Americans tend to be underrepresented in managerial and administrative positions and are stereotyped as not aggressive, inarticulate in the English language, and too technical to become managers. According to Takei and Sakamoto, the glass ceiling affects other minority groups as well as women.

When compared to White men, the odds of Latinos and African Americans reaching senior management positions were lower than White men. The reasons for the disadvantages to African Americans and Latinos were the lower levels of education attained in comparison to Whites. African American women were an exception, however, because the inequality in managerial authority was attributed to direct discrimination (Elliott & Smith, 2004).

In a study of the effects of gender and race on an organization’s promotion ratings, Landau (1995) concluded that minorities such as Hispanics, Asian Americans, and African Americans and women had a lower rating on their potential for promotions as a result of a bias against women and minorities. The study took into account, the study participant’s education, age, tenure, occupation, salary grade, and career satisfaction (Landau, 1995).

A Chilly Classroom Climate

Perception plays an important role in a person's experience in the classroom (Edde & Tomal, 2005). In a study by Edde and Tomal (2005), “a greater proportion of the female respondents believed that male students are more competent, and a smaller proportion of the female respondents believed that male students are less competent” (p. 264).The perception impacts the female students’ experience in the classroom. According to Allan and Madden (2006), the chilly classroom climate has been discussed as a basis of bias and discrimination of girls and women because of existing societal perceptions. The mixed method study used a combination of a qualitative grounded theory research and a descriptive quantitative design method to sample 394 students to discuss if chilly classroom climates explain why women are at a disadvantage in the classroom. The qualitative study using focus groups confirmed and extended the initial studies presented by the quantitative studies previously performed. The study questioned if student and faculty behavior were also important variables in college climate and teaching.

Edde and Tomal (2005) asserted that communication and classroom style were more in line with men’s communication preferences than with women’s preferences. Typical teaching behaviors in the classroom environment tend to reward being able to work independently and objectivity. The classroom is favorable to students who are more vocal, and the classroom syllabus usually does not address the women’s perspective. The factors of classroom style and communication impact the level of student participation, satisfaction, and self-esteem (Edde & Tomal, 2005). Barker and Garvin-Doxas (2004) discussed the classroom as an environment where communication creates shared meaning when information is transmitted via discussions and lectures. Communication enables role, relationship, norms, and belief development, and communication patterns are influenced by the teacher and student’s view of authority, lecture content, and roles in the learning environment. The communication climate influences interaction and communication in the classroom (Barker & Garvin-Doxas).

Reasons for the low percentages of female computer science students and a lack of interest among young women include (a) a lack of female role models, (b) The perception of careers in engineering and science, and (c) a lack of support in school and at home. Young women's attitudes and values tend to include an element of skepticism about technology (Esch, 2005). Esch stated, “As a result of this skepticism, even women students who have fared better than their male counterparts have low confidence in their own technical abilities” (p. 2).

According to Esch (2005), another key factor in the reasons why fewer women are studying engineering and science is the way in which the courses are designed. The field is less attractive to women because the courses focus on the natural and technical aspects such as ecological, economic, and social aspects that have been at a lower priority level in engineering courses. Interdisciplinary aspects have always been of secondary importance in engineering courses. Esch asserted that women’s interests and values are not reflected in technical development and innovation although the women are successfully pursuing careers in engineering and computer science, adding application and value to the community.

Although women make up 50% of workers in environmental and biotechnology courses, the key subjects are lacking in application and social content, and the courses tend to be more theoretical than practical. Female students are “put off by the concise, dense course design, the amount of learning [which] required the monotonous style of instruction and learning, and the rigid emphasis on study that leaves little room for social and student activities” (Esch, 2005, p. 2). Despite mustering up the courage to enter the male-dominated technology world, female students are not rewarded, and in comparison to their male colleagues, women engineers are faced with "lower pay, fewer promotion prospects, a greater chance of being laid off, and less acceptance by fellow workers" (Esch, p. 2).

A Leaky Pipeline

In addition to social and traditional roles of the sexes, Othman and Latih (2006) noted that computer games are developed for boys and give them an advantage over girls when they begin college. In addition to social gender roles, younger women face gender discrimination, low self-esteem, and an absence of role models and mentors (Othman & Latih). Since the 1990s, the ratio of women involved in computer science from high school to graduate school has decreased (Camp, 1997). Camp described the phenomenon as the shrinking pipeline because as the percentage of women awarded bachelor’s degrees in computer science decreased, the graduates of science and engineering disciplines increased. Camp asserted that the shrinking pipeline is a concern as the number of women at the bachelor’s level affects the number of women who make progress to the higher levels in the pipeline and into the job market. In the technology industry, the workers are considered to be uninteresting and nerdy and predominantly White male. Women and minorities have chosen alternative fields of study (Burge & Suarez, 2005).

Although the number of people working in the computer fields has increased, women and minorities in the United States are underrepresented in information technology (Zarrett & Malanchuk, 2005). Blickenstaff (2005) introduced the metaphor of the leaky pipeline that “carries students from secondary school through university and on to a job in information technology” (p. 369). Female students leave the information technology field when they apply to colleges and universities as well as before graduating from post-secondary courses (Blickenstaff).

A study by Nielsen, von Hellens, Beekhuyzen, and Trauth (2003) explored the way women in technology discussed their work and identified factors that examined the relation between high school students and first-year college students. Factors included the way information technology was represented in the media, peer pressure, educational environments, and parental influences. “The students perceived IT as a masculine domain and the female students saw the IT course as boring and difficult” (Nielsen et al., p. 68).

In a study by Hanson (2004), research into subgroups of women demonstrated that subgroups of women along multicultural lines have different experiences in science education and occupations. Research showed that the African American subgroup of women are interested in and took part in science in the early high school years, but despite their interest, African American women face racism and sexism in the science domain and are underrepresented in science programs and occupations (Hanson). Hanson argued that because women do less well in science than men and because minority groups do less well in science than the majority, African American women are at a double disadvantage in science.

Hanson (2004) reported that although young African American women expressed more interest in science than their White counterparts, a lessening of interest occurred over time. The study revealed that in eighth grade, 59% of African American female students looked forward to science class and 70% perceived that science would be useful. By the time the students had completed two years of high school, only 42% were interested in science. Hanson asserted that the women faced sexism and racism in their pursuit of science and the low expectations of teachers in integrated school systems are a barrier to the students continuing along the information technology pipeline.

Cahoon (2003) posited that women are discouraged from continuing with the chosen computer science major as a result of the college environment. The environment is a reflection of society’s general lack of support and the females students do not have the support of faculty members and other students to help them deal with issue of low self-esteem associated with following a path outside accepted gender stereotypes. In a study of 178 computer science students, peer support was listed as the most common coping mechanism on the computer science course.

Although peer support was important to both female and male students, women do not have equal access to classmates of the same sex and must receive support from their male classmates (Cahoon, 2003). In order not to be perceived as inferior or imperfect, some of the female students interviewed were uncomfortable approaching male students. Female students gave the fact that asking male classmates for help may be misconstrued as more than an academic interest as another reason the female students do not ask for help (Cahoon). The female students who relied on their female colleagues believed that being a minority proved to be a disadvantage when additional support was needed. The support of faculty was another important factor in being able to study computer science. The faculty encouraged students to complete the course and mentored the female students (Cahoon).

Current Findings

The findings explained the current theories on why minority women are underrepresented in information technology leadership roles as a result of the theoretical elements such as the glass ceiling, a chilly classroom climate, and a leaky pipeline. In the review, the gaps in the literature addressed in the study are identified. Chalofsky (2006) posited that perception is another way to view reality. “Reality is socially constructed and phenomenally based and requires engagement and an acceptance that it is an interpretive, dynamic act” (Chalofsky, p. 55). Individual perceptions cannot be discounted as humans are, without question, a company’s biggest asset in spite of the current trends towards outsourcing, off-shoring, and increased automation. In the work environment, people can benefit greatly from shared perspectives, as issues are no longer just black and white and employees have different strengths in skills and knowledge. Collaboration across teams and among individuals fosters learning within the organizations of the 21st Century (Chalofsky).

Women in Technology

Lemons and Parzinger (2007) studied gender schemas in information technology and concluded that women in technology had statistically significant different gender schemas from the general population. Schemas are elements that are interrelated, resulting from observing similar events, and the gender schemas determine the individual gender expectations based on biological sex (Lemons & Parzinger). Lemons and Parzinger continued that employees tend to be more aware of their coworker’s gender than characteristics of ethnic background, marital status, and religion. Gender schemas are varied across cultures and begin at an early age and are evident in information technology because of the portrayal of the technology field as an anti-social and solitary profession of young White males in movies and books.

In a study by the National Center for Educational Statistics, women have historically been in the mathematics, science, and engineering disciplines. According to Cahoon (2003), Less than 40% of the STEM bachelor’s degrees were earned by women in 1970. In 1999 the figure rose to 50% for science, mathematics, and engineering (Cahoon). Cahoon noted that in 2000, the number of women obtaining computer science degrees was only 30%. Studies of diversity showed that women and minorities are underrepresented in the workplace (Blickenstaff, 2005).

An imbalance in the number of women represented in information technology managerial positions becomes obvious with 13% female vice presidents and CIOs with salaries 9% lower than their male counterparts (Lemons & Parzinger, 2007). Women are under –represented in information technology despite the need for qualified personnel and the women entering the profession often leave (Lemons & Parzinger).

According to Hanson (2004), federal data collection agencies, policy makers, and researchers have identified women as an undifferentiated group, but a limited amount of information is available on subgroups of women. “Not all women have the same experiences in science education and occupations and our understanding of the unique talents, interests, and experiences of subgroups of women is heightened when we consider their experiences through a multicultural lens” (Hanson, p. 96). Minority women are underrepresented in leadership roles within the technology and science sectors in the United States as a result of the societal perceptions of the lack of role models, academic preparation, attitude, and early experiences (Blickenstaff, 2005).

Gaps in the Literature

There have been few studies that addressed the career advancement of minority women in both traditional and nontraditional professions. Further research is required to understand and explore the experiences and perceptions of a selected minority group’s experiences in information technology.

According to Takei and Sakamoto (2008), prior studies concluded that minorities and women are sometimes at a disadvantage when it comes to attaining supervisory authority or managerial positions. The study results differed based on the demographic group under consideration, the measures used, organizational factors, and the control variables. In spite of the inability to determine precise patterns, the study results indicated that the glass ceiling hypothesis, specifically regarding minority women functioning in information technology leadership roles, merits further detailed investigation (Takei & Sakamoto).

The literature on diversity includes information on the benefits of having a diverse workforce, but limited literature exists on ways in which organizations can increase the number of minority women functioning in information technology leadership positions. Although leading organizations are working to improve the percentages of diverse employees hired, the requirement is fulfilled by hiring a White woman to the information technology leadership positions, thus adhering to the quota required for gender diversity. With 75% of Fortune 500 companies having formal diversity programs, only 33% of the African American women surveyed believed that their environments were supportive of their needs (Brown, 2004). Of the group surveyed, 36% felt that the programs fostered respect for their cultural background, and 37% saw opportunities for advancement to leadership positions declining over time (Catalyst, 2004).

Barker and Garvin-Doxas (2004) observed a defensive communication climate in computer science classrooms with an impersonal environment and guarded behavior characterized by neutral communication. With a normal human desire to be perceived as important, a failure to use students’ names is perceived as a lack of concern for others and is important for women who define themselves in terms of their relationship to others. “The neutral and impersonal nature of many of the practices in the computer science courses observed can unintentionally and indirectly communicate rejection rather than acceptance and therefore fail to recognize the value of the individual” (p. 138). Women find the communicative practices discouraging as women are more cooperative in their approach to social interactions and a learning environment should be a place where making a mistake is an acceptable action (Barker & Garvin-Doxas).

The current literature discusses the issues faced by female students in the classroom and the perception of the students in information technology disciplines. Educators are faced with the challenge of ensuring that classrooms are women friendly and create classrooms that are as free from gender bias as possible (Wasburn, 2006). Women are subject to experience in school as well as familial influences, and the literature reviewed does not address the experiences of minority female student who can form a basis to encourage study and self-confidence in order to be able to continue to retain interest in studying science. Allan and Madden (2006) concluded that educators should have an understanding of the social force that impedes acknowledgement of gender bias that will help in designing further studies and accurately reflect minority women’s experiences. Although attention has been paid to the barriers faced by women in information technology careers, little attention has been paid to the interaction of minorities as they are related to pursuing a career in information technology (Zarrett & Malanchuk, 2005).

Current Theories: Opposing Views

Researchers with widespread success in the technical field have discounted the claims about the underrepresentation of minority women. Both male and female students have equal opportunity to study and work in any discipline he or she chooses (Blickenstaff, 2005). The number of United States degrees awarded in STEM fields increased 258% from 239,333 in 1966 to 616,463 in 2004 (CPST, 2006). Over the past 25 years, the number of underrepresented minorities (URMs) earning degrees has increased, but a gap exists between educational attainment of URMs and that of Whites (CPST, 2006). Bernard (2003) asserted that more women occupy top jobs in major information technology organizations nationwide than ever before with management positions continuing to be filled with diversity candidates. The topics demonstrating the opposing views include the views of science outside the United States, familial influences, and the Techno Feminist theory in response to the issues of perceptions of gender inequality that influence the classroom climate and the study of computer science to pursue an information technology career.

The View of Science Outside the United States

In spite of the dwindling number of women graduating with degrees in computer science across the globe, Othman and Latih (2006) explained that the number of women is greater than the number of males pursuing computer science degrees in Malaysia. The study examined if a difference in the way men and women perceived computer science existed and concluded that young Malaysians did not view computer science as a masculine field. From the study results, the males did not outperform the women and the females were adequately represented among the high achievers. The female students were confident that they would pursue a career in the computer or information technology industry.

The study concluded that young students in Malaysia had a different perception of computer science than students in the United States did. The perception that computer science was not a difficult, technical subject had been ingrained in the children since childhood. Othman and Latih (2006) recommended that steps should be taken to remedy the perception in order to overcome the shortage of women in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics in the Western world in general. In Scandinavia, occupational segregation differs from that found in the United States, and a strong cultural policy encourages participation in public life and careers in science and engineering (Sevo, 2006).

Sevo countered with the argument that the United States encourages entrepreneurship, innovation, and competitiveness. The statistics should not be a key factor, and basing educational standards on the inclusion of students of race and gender compromises the educational system. Literature has shown that minorities and women do not continue through the leaky pipeline to careers in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, but it is not possible to customize education for all student subgroups as motivated students have survived and succeeded in traditional courses.

Familial Influences

Hanson (2004) argued that a large proportion of African American women in the labor force do not see a conflict between their work and familial roles. To African American women, work is viewed as a dimension of motherhood; however, the perceived incompatibility between science careers and family deters African American women from pursuing science degrees and occupations. The tradition of male dominance found in White families in the United States is not mirrored in African American families. The effects for African American women are greater self-esteem, independence, assertiveness, and high educational and occupational expectations in relation to other multicultural subgroups. Hanson continued that African American families compensate for resources such as socioeconomic status by providing young women with resources such as increased gender ideologies, work expectations, and maternal expectations. African American families put greater emphasis on education and occupation as a source of mobility for their daughters in relation to White families because African American parents do not view marriage as a source of mobility. Despite positive familial influences, Hanson’s study demonstrated factors outside the familial influences that led to the reduction in the desire for African American women to continue in a career in science.

Sevo’s (2006) study addressed counterarguments to the presence of women in the fields of science and the need to increase the numbers of female representation. To the argument that women should have equal access to any field, Sevo countered that women are perceived as inferior and naturally not interested in the same things in which men are interested. According to Sevo, women should stay true to a career choice that is in line with their natural disposition. Men continue the masculine view of science by being the dominant force in the disciplines of science and engineering. Another argument comes from the economists who dispute the global statistics on the declining number of women in science and counter that the workforce shortages are manufactured. The economists insisted that the job markets are self-regulating, and after graduating from college, students enter fields where jobs exist. A female STEM graduate often would work in a field different from the one in which she obtained her bachelor’s degree (Sevo, 2006).

Globalization

Globalization reduces language barriers, cultural relationships, and time zone differences. New technologies and new organizations are introduced as a result of restructuring to meet the needs of globalization and improve performance. Globalization has forced companies to address their current work practices, and many functions have been outsourced. A report by the National Science Foundation (2008) indicated that foreign students receive 50% of the Ph.D.s in engineering and computer science. Organizations have also worked to accommodate the skills shortage on the United States by leveraging skills from engineers from India and China. Large companies have outsourced business functions or have teams working off-shore in countries like India and China. Revenues from outsourcing are expected to exceed $12 billion in 2007 (Mamaghani, 2006), and “The main reason that companies outsource/off-shore is to reduce costs, which can be obtained through lower labor rates of overseas workers” (p. 848).

The Technofeminist Theory

Wajcman’s (2004) asserted that a shifting of the power of technological innovations from men to women had occurred in the 1990s. The stereotypes, sense of identity, and expectations have been challenged with increased access to technical skills, economic opportunities, and cultural powers. Wajcman’s theory of Techno Feminism is an “overview of past debates in concert with current concerns in the field and encourages new ways of thinking about the interconnection between the development of technology and contemporary gender relations” (Toffoletti, p. 21).

Because of its use in assessing the economic, social, historical, cultural contexts of technology and the theoretical shifts in feminist identity politics, the Techno Feminist framework is a summary of previous discussions aligned with the current debates in the field and encourages different viewpoints in the relationship between gender relations and technology. The framework offers an explanation of the technological change process as part of the gender power negotiations. The goal of technofeminism is to empower women to embrace technology and link the process to discussions of power (Toffoletti, 2004).

Need for The Research Study

Burge and Suarez (2005) suggested that further investigation into the barriers experienced by women is needed to understand the extent to which existing data can aid in the recruitment and retention of underrepresented groups. The main factors affecting the participation of women and minorities in sciences are social, cultural, and financial. Extensive literature exists on the topic of the underrepresentation of women in science and engineering, but further research can help to explore the extent to which current studies can aid in the recruitment and retention of minority women in the field of information technology and leadership in particular (Burge & Suarez). The ability to analyze the outcome of the data will support the creation of new strategies to serve high school and college students and provide leaders with the guidelines to improve the organizational knowledge and skills to deal with diversity (Howard, 2007).

Diversity in the workplace serves as a competitive advantage by helping recruit and retain talented individuals, impacts the bottom line, opens up marketing opportunities provides better and varied ideas, and assists organizations in complying with issues of discrimination (Espinoza, 2007). The framework will inform senior management and executives in the United States of the factors to increase the number of minority women pursuing careers in information technology after graduation and educate management on how to provide support and encouragement to minority women to remain in the industry. The need for increased representation of women in information technology is expressed in government research, government mandates, business plans, policy reports, petitions, and initiatives in education. Sevo (2006) argued that female participation in the science disciplines mirrors the Declaration of Independence stating that all men are equal; women should have equal access to any field of endeavor.

Conclusion

Chapter 2 presented the roles of women in information technology and the underrepresentation of minority women in science, especially in mathematics, engineering, and computer science. The main theories that account for the comparatively reduced numbers are the concepts of the chilly classroom, the leaky pipeline, and the glass ceiling (Allan & Madden, 2005; Anderson, 2006; Blickenstaff, 2005) that is a barrier to equal pay and promotions in the industry. In spite of an increase in the number of women in senior executive management positions in information technology, the framework that forms a basis of the study identified a chilly climate in the classroom as one of the factors that places women at a disadvantage. Dancy (2004) argued that although most teachers believe in equality and do not discriminate intentionally in the classroom environment, the educational system is still biased.

A leaky pipeline in higher education also serves as a filter removing women from the stream of careers in information technology (Dancy, 2003). The glass ceiling is the third form of discrimination with sexual harassment and overt discrimination affecting women’s lack of progression and status in the workplace. The issues facing minority women must be addressed in order to achieve the improved financial performance demonstrated when organizations have a larger number of diverse employees.

The business case for recruiting, developing, and advancing women in leadership roles in companies that promote diversity is that companies are able to make better decisions, produce better products, and maintain a competitive advantage over homogenous companies (“The Bottom Line,” 2004). Further research is needed as a result of the need for organizations to achieve diversity by implementing effective recruitment and retention strategies. The research and theories developed will provide guidance and insight into understanding the experiences of minority women within the field of information technology.

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODS

Studies of diversity indicated women and minorities are underrepresented in the workplace (Blickenstaff, 2005). Specifically, minority women are underrepresented in leadership roles in information technology in the United States as a result of the societal perceptions of the influences of the lack of role models, academic preparation, attitude, and early experiences (Blickenstaff). The current qualitative study included an exploration of the social perceptions of minority women through interviews with participants of African American, Hispanic, and Asian descent in the United States representative of the population of interest. The phenomenological study included research on participants in leadership roles in information technology.

The purpose of the current phenomenological study was to explore the lived experiences of 20 professional women in information technology leadership positions of African American, Hispanic, and Asian descent working in companies in the San Francisco Bay area of California to identify the themes challenging the societal perceptions of minority women in information technology careers. The use of a phenomenological methodology can help to elicit information about the lived experiences, insights, and perceptions of minority women in information technology (Groenewald, 2004; Kenyon, 2004). The study included the identification of the lived experiences and themes challenging the societal perceptions of the underrepresentation of minority women in careers in information technology in the San Francisco Bay area of California. Participants taking part in the study were able to describe the phenomenon (Groenewald).

The use of a phenomenological design served to guide the analysis of emerging themes. The study involved the selection of qualitative data from interviews to obtain information representing the participants’ lived experiences. Chapter 3 includes a discussion of the qualitative methodology and appropriateness of the design and verification of the credibility of the study in relation to the roles and experiences of minority women in leadership roles in the field of information technology.

Research Method and Design Appropriateness

The use of phenomenological methods was appropriate for the current research study because of the scarcity of literature exploring the causes of the decline in the number of women in information technology, especially in senior positions. Van Manen (2002) wrote, “Phenomenology attempts to explicate the meanings as we live them in our everyday existence, our life world” (p. 11). Phenomenology includes an attempt to eliminate prejudgment and presupposition and “allows the reaching of a transcendental state where the customs, beliefs, and prejudices of everyday experiences fall away” (Moustakas, 1994, p. 41).

Qualitative studies include a determination of the reasons for a lack of literature, whereas quantitative studies usually include an abundance of literature (Creswell, 2004; Denzin & Lincoln, 2005). The use of a quantitative method would result in a less effective description of the essence of the participants’ lived experiences. A quantitative method is close-ended and was not appropriate for answering the research question. The intent of a quantitative study is to confirm or disprove the tested hypotheses, limiting the possibility of duplicating research results (Creswell; Denzin & Lincoln). Qualitative studies such as the current research study include the acceptance of multiple meanings for social and historical experiences with the intent of designing and establishing theory, patterns, or participatory methods (Creswell; Denzin & Lincoln). Creswell contended that qualitative studies focus on the complexities of phenomena that occur in natural settings. Denzin and Lincoln reported that the qualitative researcher asks broad and open-ended questions to encourage the study participants to share their views about the problem.

The intent of qualitative studies is to obtain a detailed understanding of a problem. Consideration of the merit of a qualitative research study involves accounting for the knowledge of the target audience and their familiarity with the method of research. Qualitative research methods have become more accessible through the availability of books, articles, workshops, and conferences; researchers might need to educate their audiences regarding the research method (Creswell, 2004). A key factor in the merit of quantitative research is experience in collecting and analyzing the data.

The evaluation of the scientific merit of a quantitative study must include consideration of whether the approach to the study matches the approach to the research problem. Creswell (2004) posited, “A quantitative research approach is one in which the investigator primarily uses post positivist claims for developing knowledge, employs strategies of inquiry such as experiments and surveys, and collects data on predetermined instruments that yield statistical data” (p. 18). The intent of quantitative research problems is to study trends and provide explanations to the problems. Another factor to consider is the intended audience of the report. The researcher of a quantitative research study must have training or be familiar with “measurement, statistics, and quantitative data collection approaches such as correlation or survey techniques” (Creswell, p. 54). The current research study included the use of the following research question: How do women employed in the information technology field report that the societal perceptions of a lack of role models, experience, or academic preparation have contributed to the underrepresentation of minority women in leadership roles in information technology?

Population

The unit of analysis was minority women in a leadership role in the field of information technology. The intent of the focus was to increase needed knowledge about applying leadership theories to minority women functioning in leadership roles in the field of information technology. Female leaders in the field of information technology in the San Francisco Bay area of northern California comprised the sample for the study.

Sampling

Seidman (2006) indicated the intent of a qualitative method is to seek holism, contextual knowledge, and understanding from different perspectives of the phenomenon under consideration. The current study included the use of snowball or chain sampling strategy sampling, a form of purposive sampling. The use of the purposive sampling method allowed for the selection of the most representative sample to answer the research question, which involved developing a framework of elements that serve to influence an individual’s contribution (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005). The effort included a need for practical knowledge of the research area, available literature, and study evidence. Because the goal of the research was to obtain information about a phenomenon rather than generalize to the larger sample, the use of purposive sampling was ideal for selecting individuals to inform an understanding of the phenomenon.

The sampling criteria for participants included the following. Participants spoke fluent English as a first language. At the time of the study, selected participants held at least part-time employment for at least 3 years with a private sector organization with at least 100 employees of various racial and ethnic backgrounds. Participants were at least 25 years old. Participants had a general knowledge of human diversity and organizational performance. Individuals participated in the study because of an interest in the topic.

Human resource professionals at various corporations received written information regarding the qualifications of study participants. Participant identification ensued from the lists supplied by human resources professionals. Individuals on the list received letters or e-mails including an invitation to participate in the study. The study included the first 20 individuals to respond.

Selection of the purposive sample of participants occurred based on their experience and knowledge associated with the topic under investigation. The use of the snowball or chain sampling strategy serves to identify individuals who then recommend participants who can provide valuable data based on lived experiences in the workplace (Dattalo, 2008; David & Sutton, 2004). Selection of the sampling frame, method, and strategy was based upon cost-effectiveness, feasibility, and convenience.

Selection of the sample size in qualitative research is a matter of judgment and experience in evaluating the data collected and determining how the data will be used (Pickering, 2008). The sample size was contingent upon the research method and the sampling strategy. The sample size was adequate to support the qualitative enterprise; the sample size for the current study was 20 participants. The inclusion of 25 participants will result in data leading to saturation (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005). Saturation occurs at the point of information redundancy when no new information or themes emerge from the data (Denzin & Lincoln).

Informed Consent

Groenewald (2004) recommended the use of the following items in an informed consent agreement (see Appendix B) : participants must (a) know they are participating in research; (b) know the purpose of the research (without a statement of the central research question); (c) know the procedures of the research; (d) know the risks and benefits involved in the research; (e) consent to the voluntary nature of research participation; (f) understand their right to stop the research at any time; and (g) understand the procedures used to protect confidentiality (Groenewald). The use of honesty and confidentiality during a research study served to encourage sincere responses and reduce suspicion (Bailey, 1996). Participants received an explanation of the informed consent form and submitted the signed consent form before commencement of the interview. All participating women signed the informed consent form, which will be secured for 3 years.

Confidentiality

Selection of interviewees occurred through the use of a database of female leaders in the field of information technology. Each participant understood her participation was confidential and voluntary. Participants received the opportunity to review and sign consent forms before participating in the research study. If prospective participants expressed the desire not to participate, they confirmed this desire by e-mail or in writing and had no further obligations to the study. No data collection occurred until receipt of the signed informed consent forms. All study materials will be stored on a portable hard drive locked in an office drawer for 3 years. At that time, all data will be shredded, bagged, and discarded, and the hard drive and other media will be electronically erased and all paper data will be incinerated.

Instrumentation

The study involved the use of a systematic procedure to analyze the phenomenological data. The process was transcendental based on the fact that the phenomenon was viewed for the first time and the researcher was open to its totality (Moustakas, 1994). Participants described their experiences with the phenomenon; analysis involved the identification and clustering of important statements into themes. The study then involved the synthesis of themes into textural and structural descriptions of the individual’s experiences and the construction of a composite description of the meanings and essence of the experiences.

The beginning of a study should involve the use of a systematic approach to enable researchers to set aside their views of the phenomenon and focus on the views reported by the participants (Moustakas, 1994). Moustakas contended,

No position whatsoever is taken . . . nothing is determined in advance . . . [researchers remain present and focus on their own consciousness] by returning to whatever is there in memory, perception, judgment, feeling, whatever is actually there (Moustakas, 1994, p. 84).

Research studies must include the avoidance of references to others, their perceptions, and judgments to achieve epoché.

Data Collection

The current research study included a focus on the perceived lived experiences and barriers contributing to a low number of minority women functioning as leaders in information technology. Data collection occurred through the use of interviews with the intent to measure the strengths, weaknesses, and success of the participants’ experiences and evaluate, explain, and gain insight into the lived experiences of the interviewees (Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2005). The interview process included note taking and recording on a cassette. Each cassette received an interview code. The transcription of key words, phrases, and statements resulted in an understanding of the participant’s experiences.

Creswell posited the insights, perception, and lived experiences of 5 to 20 study participants would foster new knowledge (Creswell, 2004).The current study involved interviews with 20 minority women. The interview process involved the use of ethical standards; participants received a guarantee of confidentiality and privacy and were treated with dignity and respect.

Historical information, observation, and interviews comprise the three main sources of data collection for qualitative research. The use of these interview types results in control over the line of questioning. A limitation of the interview types is indirect filtering of the interviewee’s views; the information is not in a natural setting but rather in a venue previously agreed upon. The responses might include bias because the researcher is present, and the interviewees are not equally perceptive and articulate (Creswell, 2004).

The research involved the consideration of observations and focus groups as potential techniques for the current qualitative phenomenological study. Using the observation technique, individuals are able to gather data on behaviors, processes, or programs. The current study included capturing the lived experiences of the participants instead of their behaviors. Interviews result in different data from observations. Observations function to record the insights and perspectives of the participants.

Interviews took between 30 and 45 minutes, until the topic themes no longer emerged or interviewees did not introduce new perspectives on the topic. The interview duration was dependent on the availability of the participants. The interviews conducted in the current study were one-on-one sessions; the study involved the use of interviewing techniques most appropriate for collecting the data sought to answer the research question.

Kvale (1996) remarked that the qualitative interview is an exchange of views about the theme of mutual interest and to understand the world from the participants’ perspective. The study involved the use of a semi structured interview protocol approach resulting in the ability to appropriately ask questions and clarify interviewee responses (Henderson & Ainsworth, 2001). The use of open-ended research questions helped to encourage the participants to discuss their experiences in information technology leadership roles and their perception of the leadership roles (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005). Upon selection of the sample, each participant received a letter to participate in the study (see Appendix A), in addition to consent form (see Appendix B) and an interview protocol (see Appendix B).

The current study included the use of questions “directed to the participants’ experiences, feelings, beliefs, and convictions about the theme in question” (Welman & Kruger, 1999, p. 196). Another form of bracketing occurs “when the researcher brackets his or her own preconceptions and entered into the individual’s life world and use the self as an experiencing interpreter” (Miller & Crabtree, 1992, p. 24). In participant interviews, both the participant and the interviewer entered into a dialogue (Groenewald, 2004). Additional research questions emerged during the interview to support the central question (see Appendix C).

Each participant received a letter for participation (see Appendix B) and participants signed and submitted response cards specifying their agreement to be interviewed, to help with the interviews, and to have the interviews recorded. Because of the protocol used for the interviews, participants had the opportunity to reflect on their backgrounds and enhance the accuracy of the interview responses. The interview process was a fundamental source of data collection. After the study participants received letters of participation; they also received a telephone call to determine their participation and schedule an interview at a convenient date.

Participants also received a reminder of the interview date and time. The interview process included recording participant responses with a tape recorder that interfaced with a personal computer. The interview protocol included downloading information into the personal computer, taking notes during the interview for backup, and storing the data in a secure place to protect confidentiality of the respondents. The use of memoing in the field notes served to capture what is heard, seen, experienced, and thought while during the information gathering process (Groenewald, 2004). The memos or field notes were dated for later correlation with other data. Storage of the data occurred through the use of an audio-recorder with the permission of the interviewees (Arksey & Knight, 1999; Bailey, 1996). Each interview received a code such as Participant, 02 July, 2009, PA01, and a separate cassette labeled for transcribing. Each cassette also received an interview code.

The interview setting was free of interruptions and background noise. The use of field notes served as a secondary data storage method. Lofland and Lofland (1999) contended, “Field notes by the researcher are crucial in qualitative research to retain data gathered” (p. 5). The recording of interviews occurred without judgment. Lofland and Lofland emphasized field notes “should be written no later than the morning after” (p. 8).

Data Analysis

The data collection techniques listed included the use of interviews, memos, field notes, coding, and audio recording as described. The use of data analysis assisted in the development of common experiences and perceptions of the lived experiences and knowledge associated with the phenomenon concerning the barriers contributing to a low number of minority women functioning as information technology leaders. The study involved the use of IPA to identify barriers contributing to a low number of minority women functioning as information technology leaders. The use of IPA helped in the understanding of how people make sense of life experiences in terms of meaning (Breakwell, 2004). The use of hard copies of data helped to ensure organization and accuracy of the information. Files existed for (a) informed consent agreements, (b) notes made during the interviews, (c) field notes made subsequent to the interviews, (d) any note or sketch made by the participant during the interview (e) any note made during the data analysis process (e.g., grouping of units of meaning into themes), (f) the draft transcription and analysis of the interviews presented to the participants for validation, (g) confirmation of correctness or commentary by the participant about the transcript and analyses of the interview, and (h) any additional subsequent communication between the participant and the researcher (Groenewald, 2004). Data storage included audio recordings, field notes, and filing of hard copy documentation. Storage of the interview transcription and field notes was electronic on multiple hard drives; such storage will be maintained on a portable hard drive in a locked safe for 3 years.

Data analysis did not involve clustering substantially different themes together. Each participant’s lived experience was unique from the others (Groenewald, 2004). According to Coffey and Atkinson (1996), “good research is not generated by rigorous data alone . . . [but] ‘going beyond’ the data to develop ideas” (p. 139).

Geographic Location

The interview locations were in or around San Francisco, California. Nearly 1 million people of various economic, professional, and educational back ground live in San Francisco (U.S. Census Bureau, 2009). San Jose includes a population that is 51% White, 32% Asian, 3% African American, 1% American Indian and Alaska Native, and less than 0.5% Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander. Other races comprise 13% of the population. Management, professional and related occupations represent 40% of the city’s population (U.S. Census Bureau, 2009). The information technology corporate climate in the San Francisco Bay area is an ideal location to carry out and explore the study topic and the results of the research study should be extended to other areas with caution.

Validity and Reliability

The use of audio recordings of the interviews helped to minimize errors and contribute to the truthfulness of the research study. All participants received a copy of the text to confirm the reflected perspectives made during the interviews. Validity consisted of internal and external validity (Creswell, 2004). A study’s credibility is based on its overall validity (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001). Qualitative researchers do not use one best way to authenticate the validity of qualitative studies (Creswell, 2004). In phenomenological research, the validity of the data lies in the richness of the discussion (Moustakas, 1994).

Internal Validity

The definition of internal validity comprises accuracy of the information and whether the information matches reality (Creswell, 2004). Internal validity is the extent to which the design and data of the study allow the emergence of viable conclusions (Creswell, 2004; Denzin & Lincoln, 2005). The use of triangulation might help to eliminate other possible explanations for the results obtained in the current qualitative phenomenological study (Creswell). Triangulation involves the collection of multiple sources of data in the hopes that they will indicate a particular theory (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001).

Triangulation includes the combined results of three or more studies to indicate a more comprehensive picture (Jakob, 2000; Thurmond, 2001). The use of research triangulation can contribute to the completeness of a study and help to confirm findings or generate additional ideas (Risjord, Dunbar, & Moloney, 2002). The five types of triangulation include (a) the data source such as space, time, and people; (b) the investigation, involving the use of multiple observers; (c) the theory, involving the use of more than a single theoretical scheme; (d) the methodology, consisting of more than one method and the use of between-method or within-method strategies; and (e) the multiple type, combining theoretical perspectives, multiple observers, and multiple observers in a single investigation (Jakob & Thurmond, 2001).

External Validity

External validity refers to the ability and feasibility of the results of the study to transcend to other contexts (Creswell, 2004). Creswell (2004) posited, “The intent of qualitative research is not to generalize findings, but to form a unique interpretation of events” (p. 158). External validity includes the generalization findings and how individuals in the wider scientific and scholarly community accept the findings (Creswell, 2004). The validity of the findings depends on the answers to specific questions. The questions included the following: (a) applicability to a wider population, (b) using the information to draw conclusions, (c) testing of theories, and (d) developing theoretical knowledge from the results. The intent of qualitative research involves understanding a particular social event, group, situation, or interaction (Creswell, 2004).

Reliability

Reliability in qualitative research is the extent to which the study is replicable (Creswell, 2004). In phenomenological studies, reliability is dependent upon a specific protocol for data collection that results in replication the study in another setting (Moustakas, 1994). The current research study was original in that other racial, ethnic, and gender studies on information technology leadership roles included a focus on women in general rather than on minority women in information leadership rules.

Summary

The current research study resulted in important material regarding minority women in information technology. The use of the phenomenological qualitative research methodology functioned as an effective means of enhancing knowledge about complex phenomena in relation to minorities and women from a social, professional, and historical perspective (Black & Magnuson, 2005). The use of phenomenological research helped to address the experiences and perceptions of individuals from their perspectives. The research study included the use of an organized, clear, and internally and externally valid approach for job advancement with paradigms, philosophies, theories, and recommendations for supporting minority women in leadership roles in information technology.

CHAPTER 4: PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

The purpose of the current qualitative phenomenological study was to explore the perceived lived experiences and barriers contributing to a low number of minority women functioning as leaders in information technology for 20 professional women of African American, Hispanic, and Asian descent working in companies in the San Francisco Bay area of California. The low numbers of minority women in information technology leadership roles as a result of the societal perceptions of the lack of role models, academic preparation, attitude, and early experiences indicate the underrepresentation of minority women in information technology leadership roles. The use of a qualitative phenomenological methodology allowed the participants to describe the phenomenon of the underrepresentation of minority women in information technology leadership roles and enabled the understanding of the psychological and social viewpoints of the study participants (Groenewald, 2004). Groenewald and Kenyon (2004) posited the use of a phenomenological methodology can help to elicit information about the lived experiences, insights, and perceptions of the people involved in the study.

The use of interviews helped to measure the strengths, weaknesses, and opportunities for success based on the participants’ experiences. The interviews involved the use of note taking and recording using a digital tape recorder. Data analysis involved the use of IPA to develop common experiences, perceptions of the lived experiences, and knowledge associated with the phenomenon concerning the barriers contributing to a low number of minority women functioning as information technology leaders. The use of IPA helped to generate an understanding of how people can make sense of life experiences in terms of meaning (Breakwell, 2004).

Overview of Chapters

Chapter 1 included an introduction to the history of women in information technology and an exploration of why the topic is important in the study of leadership and the advancement of minority women in information technology leadership roles. Chapter 1 included an explanation of the significance of the study, implications to leadership, the nature of the study, and the study’s theoretical framework. Chapter 1 concluded with a detailed overview of the problem, the purpose of the study, the limitations, the delimitations, and the definitions of words or phrases most often used in the study.

Chapter 2 included a review of the literature surrounding the theoretical frameworks, recommendations, and strategies for minority women in information technology leadership roles. Chapter 2 involved the discussion of a number of theories, laws relating to affirmative action, statistics, and the gaps in literature concerning African American, Asian, and Hispanic women. Chapter 3 included a discussion of the research methodology used in this study and the design, specific research question, population, informed consent, and sampling frame. The study included an exploration of confidentiality, geographic location, instrumentation, data collection and analysis techniques, validity and reliability, and the feasibility and appropriateness of the methodology.

Chapter 4 includes a description and presentation of the results. Analysis of the research data resulted in the emergence of three major themes based on the interviewing process. The themes helped to form a composite description of the meanings and essences of the phenomenon studied. Interviews occurred with 20 participants who had knowledge associated with the phenomenon contributing to a low number of minority women information technology leaders. The results from the data collected from a purposive sample of African American, Hispanic, and Asian women in leadership positions within information technology teams yielded insight into the participant’s perceptions on how to overcome the career barriers. Chapter 4 includes a presentation of the data through summaries and textural descriptions in an effort to share the lived experiences and perceptions communicated by the study participants.

The research included the use of a qualitative research approach. Qualitative research is an investigative process using inquiry to gradually make sense of a social phenomenon (Creswell, 2004). Qualitative research includes the documentation of an understanding of a human problem and the studies take place in a natural setting (Creswell, 2004). The current study included the use of a qualitative phenomenological study using IPA with semi structured, audio-taped, transcribed interviews with a purposive sample of 20 African American, Asian, and Hispanic women in the information technology field in the San Francisco Bay area.

The phenomenological research design depends upon data collection through interviews with individuals who have had direct experience with the circumstance examined in the study (Prestonsoto, 2005). Selection of participants for the phenomenological study occurred based on their lived experiences and knowledge associated with the phenomenon contributing to a low number of minority female leaders in information technology. The use of a phenomenological methodology can help to elicit information about the lived experiences of the study participants (Groenewald, 2004; Kenyon, 2004; Lester, 1999) and new knowledge might derive from the lived experiences, insights, and perceptions of 5 to 20 individuals (Creswell, 2004). A phenomenological methodology is “a logical, systematic and coherent resource for carrying out the analysis and synthesis needed to arrive at essential descriptions of experience” (Moustakas, 1994, p. 47).

Review of the Problem Statement

Studies of diversity indicated women and minorities are underrepresented in the workplace (Blickenstaff, 2005). One area of underrepresented women and minorities is information technology. Specifically, minority women are underrepresented in leadership roles in information technology in the United States as a result of the societal perceptions of the lack of role models, academic preparation, attitude, and early experiences (Blickenstaff; Esch, 2005). The lack of female information technology personnel results in a reduced pool of information technology professionals and the absence of women in technology leadership roles has repercussions on the economic well-being, productivity, preparedness, and competitiveness of an organization (Diaz et al., 2008).

The research study resulted in insight into practices to influence internal policies and practices to attract, retain, and reward female employees. Increased participation of minority women in information technology might propose solutions to increase the representation of women in information technology management. Promoting gender diversity results in a culture in which women can advance to leadership roles (Catalyst, 2008).

Population Demographics

The unit of analysis was minority women in leadership roles in information technology. Female leaders in information technology in the San Francisco Bay area of northern California comprised the sample for the study. The minority women who comprised the specific population of the current research study expressed their perceptions about their roles as leaders and provided reflection in the authentic account of their lives as minority career women.

The study protocol included contacting 30 participants via telephone, e-mail, or in person. Of the 30 participants contacted, 22 responded positively, which culminated in 3 days of scheduling. Two participants chose to withdraw from the interview process because of unforeseen circumstances. Each participant received a code consisting of the two letters PA followed by a number, for example, PA09. The 20 participant codes were PA01 through PA20. A key served to match the identities of the participants with their codes. The ethnic composition of the sample included 65% African American, 30% Asian, and 5% Hispanic (See APPENDIX G). Seventy-five percent of the sample had been with the company for up to 10 years, 15% had been with the company for between 11 and 20 years, and 10% had been with the company for between 21 and 30 years (See APPENDIX H). Forty percent were individual contributors, 50% were managers, and 10% were director level workers (See APPENDIX I). Fifteen percent of the sample was between 25 and 34 years old, 55% were between 35 and 44 years old, and 30% were between 45 and 54 years old (See APPENDIX J)

Data Collection and Data Gathering Steps

Data collection spanned October 9, 2009, through January 17, 2009. Prior to the interview, participants completed a short background demographic profile (see Appendix K, Coded Participant Characteristics). Of the 20 face-to-face in-depth interviews, 12 occurred at the Wells Fargo Offices in San Francisco (see Appendix A, Permission to Use the Premises), and the remaining 8 occurred at various locations at the participants’ request because of scheduling and time conflicts. All 20 participants signed the informed consent form and agreed to recording of the interview sessions. Participants also understood the responses to the questions and statements might be published.

The interview phase of data collection followed the same general process. Telephone conversations served to develop rapport and provide a description of the study, purpose of the study, individuals and sources of the data being collected, and the confidentiality of data collection. All participants understood the benefits of the study and understood the decision to not participate would be without penalty or loss of benefit to themselves. The participants understood their responses were to be based on their lived experiences and would result in a framework for minority women in information technology to enhance their promotion opportunities. The participants understood the interview process would include answering a list of 23 open-ended questions in 30 minutes; participants received the list of questions via e-mail prior to the interview (see Appendix C). Participants received transcripts of their interview for a complete and accurate record of the analysis. The transcripts served as the foundation data for analysis of the phenomenon. Participants received codes for identification purposes as described in chapter 3.

The participants received the informed consent form (see Appendix B) and interview questions (see Appendix C) before the interview via e-mail. Many participants had the opportunity to review the questions and prepare notes. The interviews included repetition or elaboration of questions that were unclear to the participant. All interview scheduling took place with the intent of minimizing possible interruptions, so minimal interruptions occurred. Publication of the entire transcript of the interviews will not occur to avoid the risk of a breach in confidentiality (Baptiste, 2001). Prior to the interview, participants completed a short background demographic profile (see Appendix K, Coded Participant Characteristics).

Researcher’s Role

The initial interest in the current research derived from a perception of the low number of minority women in leadership roles in information technology in the United States. As a minority woman in a leadership role in information technology, the interviewer provided special insight into the phenomenon and introduced the possibility of personal bias and personal feelings about the phenomenon. Through the use of thorough self-examination, the interviewer succeeded in drawing out experiences in the subject area. The use of self-examination of experiences, preconceptions, and personal biases prior to conducting the interviews resulted in insight into personal biases that might have interfered with the interviews and the analysis of the data; such self-examination enabled the researcher to look at the interviews and the issues with “new and receptive eyes” (Moustakas, 1994, .p. 89). The study included every effort to maintain an avoidance of such personal biases as race, gender, and experiences during the interview process.

Data Analysis

The interview process was dialectic. The participants answered 8 background questions and 15 focus questions. The purpose of the background questions was to establish a rapport between the interviewer and interviewee, define personal information, and gain insight into the participants’ foundation from a personal and leadership perspective. The use of background questions helped to develop a description of each respondent, as suggested by Creswell (2004), and allowed full interaction with the participant (see Appendix K, Coded Participant Characteristics).

The 15 focus questions included a focus on the study’s primary research question: How do women employed in the information technology field report that the societal perceptions of a lack of role models, experience, or academic preparation have contributed to the underrepresentation of minority women in leadership roles in information technology? The challenge of the lived experiences and barriers contributing to a low number of minority women varied based on several factors including types of barriers, resources, and potential actions. The transcribed interviews resulted in the data for analysis in the study. The study involved the use of IPA to identify barriers contributing to a low number of minority women functioning as information technology leaders. The use of IPA helped in the understanding of how people make sense of life experiences in terms of meaning (Breakwell, 2004).

The technique of IPA is a recently developed qualitative approach to data analysis including the intent to understand how people make sense of life experiences in terms of meaning (Breakwell, 2004). IPA is in wide use across the disciplines of psychology, medicine, and the social and human sciences. The IPA methodology is phenomenological in orientation because it includes aspects of Husserl's approach to phenomenology as evidenced by the exploration of perceptions, accounts, events, and states (Smith, 1996). The intent of IPA is to seek meaning through a process of interpretative activity using rich and detailed analysis. The use of IPA usually involves in-depth interviews recorded and transcribed verbatim to elicit key themes in the data (Smith, 1996).

The IPA methodology includes a focus on a participant’s point of view as opposed to objective data and the intent to disentangle and clarify meaning through the use of interpretive engagement within transcripts and text (Smith). The IPA methodology is psychological in nature and includes the primary concern of connections among thinking, feeling, and speaking. The use of IPA helped in understanding human issues and peoples’ feelings about the issues. The analysis process involved working through individual transcripts and later analyzing the transcripts against and with other transcripts to discover themes, relationships, and patterns (Smith). The research included the following data analysis steps:

1. Iterative read—Read and reread interviews to make observations about the data (Smith).

2. Thematic analysis—Analyze, identify, and label themes from the interview. Forge connections among themes and then establish subordinate themes. New themes were sought in previous transcripts (Smith).

3. Structured analysis—List themes from interviews and consider the relationships between themes. Repeat Step 2 for the analysis of all interviews (Smith).

4. Patternization–Analyze all themes for patterns to develop master themes. Translate master themes into narrative accounts using verbatim abstracts from the data in a thematic table format.

5. Illumination and integration—Write final analysis and report the findings of interpretation (Smith).

The use of the IPA steps allows for an exploration and understanding of how people make sense of their personal and social environment (Fade, 2004). Another rationale for the steps involved the search for meaning of experiences and events impacting the participants’ reality. The IPA steps also involved detailed accounts of the experiences and events to arrive at peoples’ perceptions of a phenomenon emphasized via a dynamic process of getting close enough to people to arrive at a personal perspective (Smith). With honest and open responses, 20 minority women shared experiences, beliefs, ideas, and perceptions through individual responses to the questions and statements on the barriers minority women face in information technology. To make observations, uncover relationships patterns, and identify, develop, and label themes as represented in the data, participants described detailed and specific experiences relating to the phenomenon.

Step 1 in IPA involved a deep read of the data to make observations, followed by rereading of the data along with listening to the recorded audio data to examine the alignment of semantics in terms of language and content (Smith). Step 2 involved the development of initial themes from analyzing the interviews. Repetition of the process occurred until analysis of all interviews for connections, features, and structure of experiences within the themes was complete (Breakwell, 2004). A synopsis of the responses to the questions in the interviews included barriers to career advancement; barriers women face that men do not face in information technology; barriers African American, Asian, or Hispanic women face; and experiences contributing to success in information technology. The responses also included advice for African American, Asian, or Hispanic women to succeed in information technology; the impact of increasing the number of African American, Asian, or Hispanic women in information technology roles; the impact of the lack of role models; the impact of academic preparation; the impact of attitude and early experiences; the impact of gender role fulfillment; and the impact of affirmative action on the careers of minority women. Additional categories included suggestions for improving occupational barriers for minority women, personal factors, professional factors, and changes participants have made to enhance the information technology environment.

Step 3 included a listing of the responses and the establishment of essential descriptions of the themes and a reduction in data volume through mapping relationships and patterns of the data themes. The purpose of Step 3 was to allow for the discovery of master or emerging themes in the next step (Smith). According to the analysis of the interviews, the initial themes included types of barriers, resources, and potential actions.

The themes discovered in Step 3 functioned as the master or emerging themes (Smith). The theme of types of barriers included responses to the questions regarding the barriers women and minority women face as well as issues with career advancement. The theme of resources included responses sharing advice on how to overcome the perceived barriers to information technology as well as the personal and professional factors important to pursuing a career in information technology. The theme of potential action included the recommendations given by the study participants.

Step 4 involved a search for out of place or unrelated themes, none of which existed (Smith). The renaming of some themes allowed for more descriptive and identifiable theme titles representative of the data. Step 5 included the final written analysis of the themes, descriptions, and participant responses (Smith). The next section includes a report of the findings.

Findings and Emerging Themes

The current research study included the extrapolation, identification, and exploration of 15 focus questions to determine the unique challenges contributing to a low number of minority women in information technology leadership roles. The use of the questions helped to solicit information about the lived experiences of the participants in relation to understanding opinions about potential reasons for the low numbers of minority women in leadership positions in information technology. The identification of important topics referred to as units of significance and constant review of the applicable units of meaning helped in the development of clear and correct clusters of meaning (Groenewald, 2004). From the analysis of the 15 focused questions, three core themes emerged. The three core themes included types of barriers, resources, and potential actions. The coding process included the derivation of subthemes from the themes. The subthemes were based on common themes identified in the answers to the core themes. For example, a majority of the respondents discussed the barriers to career advancement and a common subtheme of male-dominated information technology organizations emerged. The following sections include a summary of the data collected from the interview questions.

Theme 1: Types of Barriers

The first core theme derived from the focus responses was the types of barriers. The purpose of the questions regarding the types of barriers was to determine the barriers the participants faced in career advancement compared with male colleagues. The results were important to the study under investigation because of the lived experiences shared by the participants regarding the barriers faced while climbing the career ladder. Of the 20 participants, 18 noted facing barriers in information technology teams. Analysis of the subthemes resulted in a better understanding of the challenges experienced by the participants while on the job. The subthemes identified included male-dominated information technology organizations, gender barriers, racial barriers, a lack of role models, academic preparation, attitude and early experiences, and gender role fulfillment. The following sections include an overview of the subthemes.

Subtheme: Male-Dominated Information Technology Organizations

Participants shared the experiences of working in a male-dominated information technology field. Participant 16 noted, “I have always worked in predominantly male teams and I have found it very difficult to juggle motherhood, being a wife, and having a career at the same time.” Participant 6 discussed the challenges faced by women because many leaders in the field are male, indicating,

I think that there are more men in power positions in [information technology]. Because women are less represented, they have to work much harder to be respected and to be as influential as they need to be in their positions. I see women being challenged much more than their male counterparts.

Participant 9 added, “From my experience, there has been more male dominance in management positions than women but as time went on, more women studied programming. Most males apply for those jobs and so are managers now.”

Respondents shared the experiences of facing the barrier of an old boys club.

Participant 10 noted,

Being a woman in technology was very new 10 years ago and it was never expected that women would excel in this area. As an African American woman I experienced a lot of resistance to being allowed to “learn about new technology” And though I was certainly “old enough” to compete in the industry, I was told that I didn’t “look” old enough to work with older and more mature clients. I was excluded from the “good old boys club” because I was not one of them. Success usually happens in numbers and like minds together can become a powerhouse. I experienced feelings of isolation and was unofficially part of the non-inclusionary club. To me, this was fear driven isolation. Where else and how else can we be superior? I did not have any role models or mentors to look up to either.

Participant 15 shared a similar experience of feeling isolated and excluded in the male dominated departments:

In my previous company, the environment was one of a boys club with nepotism. Most of the men had wives at home and their expectation was that all women should be at home. The men did not expect to see women who made their own money and had a hard time dealing with that and it showed. That was my experience. I saw that trying to fight the social stigmas of where women should be in society was a problem.

Gender Barriers

One of the goals of the current study was to determine whether women experienced exclusion from informal networks compared with men. The study included an examination of whether sexism or any other issues relating to discrimination existed for women and whether the issues were barriers to job opportunities for women. All 20 participants discussed facing barriers in information technology departments because of male domination in the field. Participant 14 noted,

I think that we have to prove ourselves much more, without coming across as hard and aggressive. We are expected to stay beautiful and quiet but at the same time, we have to be strong and firm in our decision making.

Participant 13 shared how women must balance family commitments with work responsibilities:

The only thing I’ve seen is that women tend to put their children first. When women have young children, they sacrifice their careers. They either take several years off or do fewer hours. Men never have to make these choices.

Participant 18 added, “Women have to deal with family constraints like child care and parental commitments and often have problems with working late at night.”

Participants discussed the impact of culture and stereotypes on minority women’s ability to lead information technology departments. Participant 2 noted,

Many African American, Asian, and Hispanic women were raised traditionally to be subservient to fathers, brothers, and uncles. So, in some way, the subservient behaviors that were instilled in some of us in the home environment [are] somewhat reflected in the professional environment. This can sometimes be portrayed as lacking the proper leadership skills required in some [information technology] roles.

Participant 17 added, “Sometimes it seems like women have to prove themselves to gain credibility while men are given the benefit of doubt. Also, men do not have to worry that their networking efforts come across as flirting like women do.” Participant 20 discussed the perception minority women can only fulfill administrative roles:

When a woman walks into a room of IT workers, people may assume that she is the admin and that her boss will come in and run the meeting. A woman has to go in and assert herself. You are not automatically given the respect. Even when your peers and subordinates know who you are or attend a meeting with a peer, they refer to the male for decisions as a natural inclination. You have to assert yourself.

Racial Barriers

The current study included an examination of whether race had an impact on minority women gaining acceptance, mobility within the information technology departments, and social interactions with other departments. Four respondents discussed the relationship between racial prejudice and gender prejudice as being one and the same. Participant 2 stated,

Many African American, Asian, and Hispanic women were raised traditionally to be subservient to males at home; their fathers, brothers, uncles. In some way, the subservient behaviors that were instilled in some of us in the home environment [are] somewhat reflected in the professional environment. This can sometimes be portrayed as lacking the proper leadership skills required in some [information technology] roles.

Five respondents contended equality in the workplace and race have hindered their advancement over the years. Participant 7 noted,

Barriers of entry are difficult for women of color. As a woman of color it is not assumed that you have the skill set and you have to prove yourself to let people believe that you do in fact have the technical skill and expertise that are required to do the job.

Each respondent had unique thoughts regarding the question. The findings from the data were important to the study because the responses confirmed racism is a barrier for minority women in information technology leadership roles, according to the lived experiences documented from the 20 participants. The findings were important to the topic under investigation because the responses confirmed race continues to impact acceptance, mobility, and social interactions for minority women in information technology departments. Participant 6 noted, “To me this is a barrier due to the fact that minority women have two strikes: one being their race and the other being their gender.”

Participant 3 shared a perspective on the racial barrier having additional challenges and noted,

Differences in race [come] with a set of additional challenges that include not only skin color, but culture, leadership style, stepping into new territory, trust in abilities and your own self fear and doubt that is instilled from birth. It’s this very existence that establishes how you respond and are responded to in any and all communities; from the playground to the boardroom. And advancing in our career won’t happen in the technology industry until we are able to rid ourselves of all that was given to us at birth and we are able to move in and around jobs in this male-dominated industry efficiently and effectively. Another barrier I’ve experienced is no network, no mentors, or support systems. Which is ironic since the Web is built from many networks.

In addition to the subthemes of male-dominated information technology organizations, gender, and race, the study participants noted a lack of networking opportunities, mentors, role models, a lack of support from managers, and stereotyping as barriers to career progression. Participant 17 described the impact of the lack of networking opportunities by noting,

In my experience I have had a hard time understanding what is expected of me and then developing the expected soft skills like assertiveness, the ability to summarize, looking at the big picture, and presentation skills. I have had to learn these skills on the job and that has been difficult.

Participant 5 shared, “I experienced a lack of inclusion in networking and bonding activities when it came to my carrier and these were barriers for me.” Participant 8 discussed the impact of not having a role model or mentor:

I feel that have been a barrier to my career. I wasn’t directed and focused on the path I wanted to set for myself. Half has been finding out through trial and error. If I had more advice and encouragement and more information when I was younger I could have advanced quicker. Those were my choices. I didn’t choose the Database Administrator (DBA) manager path because I didn’t feel I could do that sufficiently as a woman and have a family.

Participant 6 noted, “I have been faced with lots of barriers in my career advancement that I am glad to say [have] not stopped me. Some of the hardest barriers have been related to having very unsupportive direct managers,” as an example of the overall lack of support from managers. Participant 6 continued by discussing stereotyping:

Other barriers that I have been facing are stereotypes and unfortunately being very underrepresented in my team. I have held several positions where I have been the only African American woman on the team, in the organization, and even in the building. I feel like I have often been challenged a lot more than others because I am not expected to be in a high-level, decision-making position. An example of this is the “parrot” syndrome, meaning in the past when I have had ideas that I have presented in a group environment often my co-workers or direct manager have to “parrot” (say exactly what I just said) to the group as if I was speaking a foreign language. This is something that was very frustrating to me. In spite of the challenges or barriers that I have dealt with, I feel like I have been able to take control of my career and if I am too uncomfortable I have been able to make changes and to find positions where I was more comfortable.

Although Participant 12 contended she had not experienced any racial barriers to her role, she noted she had observed stereotyping: “I personally haven’t experienced racial barriers, but I do think there might be some stereotyping at the workplace.”

Two respondents reported they did not face any barriers to career advancement in information technology departments. Participant 15 noted,

I do not feel that I have personally faced any barriers yet. I have observed that in certain places you can be promoted to a lead but because of nepotism and favoritism, it does not happen but for where I want to be in my career.

Participant 4 noted, “I haven’t faced many barriers. However, I’ve found nothing is just handed to you. You have to work hard, get results and then ask for what you want or expect in return such as promotions, raise, or recognition.”

Subtheme: Lack of Role Models

The current study involved an examination of whether the lack of role models has contributed to the underrepresentation of minority women in information technology leadership roles. Of the 20 participants, 17 agreed the absence of role models was discouraging to female minority students wanting to pursue a career in information technology. The participants did not know what to expect and did not have the opportunity to learn from other minority women in the field. Participants indicated the lack of representation prevents them from considering and pursuing opportunities in the chosen field. Participant 1 noted,

The idea of role models start at home—if a girl or young woman is not exposed in her home life or daily life to women in leadership roles, she will not likely strive for the leadership role, but instead mimic what she sees, as so many young women do today—they see the images of women elevated in music videos so they are following that poor lead rather than that of an independent woman who controls her own destiny.

Participant 6 shared the following:

I think having a role model would have really helped me in my career but I never had one, especially not one that looked like me. I think it would be good to have had one because I would have been able to learn from their experiences as to what to expect and may have avoided some of the more challenging times in my career.

Participant 7 added,

I do not think that there are enough women of color represented in information technology and the ones that are in the field do not have any time to mentor others coming up the ladder as their hands are full having to prove themselves in their roles.

Subthemes: Academic Preparation

The purpose of the question regarding academic preparation was to reveal courses of action such as advanced education, improving on existing skills, and knowledge sharing. The intent of the question was to determine whether a lack of academic preparation has contributed to the low number of minority women in positions of authority or supervisor positions in information technology. One participant perceived more minority women benefitted from the access to better education, resulting in better career opportunities than for women who did not have access to good education. Participant 2 contended, “Minority women have more opportunity today than ever before to academically prepare themselves for leadership roles in [information technology]. The ratios are constantly changing as women are educating themselves and getting more involved in [information technology].”

The remaining participants indicated the lack of academic preparation has contributed to a lack of opportunity for exposure, communication, and increasing the knowledge base in information technology. Adequate academic preparation resulted in a quicker progression up the career ladder than having to learn through experience in the field alone. A lack of education in turn resulted in decrease communication and knowledge base regarding technology. Participant 11 noted, “With no education, individuals will lack the well-rounded professional and social skills, which are gained via exposure to different educational methods and presentations.” Participant 5 provided a similar response, noting “With a lack of education, there is limited exposure. Poor early academic preparation and focus prevents minority females from competing in this field.”

Participant 10 attributed the lack of academic preparation to culture and environment, noting,

This issue goes back to the culture and environment. Our access to this information from friends, teachers, and mentors led us to believe that when it comes to academics women are not naturally inclined to take technology classes because of how unsuitable it is and boring.

Participant 9 discussed how a lack of adequate education was a barrier to career progression:

I see my barrier to my career has been because of my lack of education and training. My not having a degree made my progression on my career path much slower than I wanted it to be because I had to learn on the job. The knowledge was not something I already had and so it took much longer for me to get to where I am today.

Respondents contended children should be exposed to all aspects of education at an early age. Participant 15 noted,

Education is not just the intellectual capability of a child. If you have the available resources and can encourage your kids to go out of the box, they will advance in different aspects. If a parent does not know how to encourage out-of-the-box thinking in the children then that aspect will not be nurtured.

Participant 20 discussed how information technology graduates can enter the information technology field without having to take additional professional examinations.

Participant 20 noted,

[Information technology] is more equal than other professions because it is relatively new and not steeped in old traditions and challenges the status quo. Nerds can be rich because [information technology] has given them an outlet and doesn’t have strict process like law. Because half the time you are not seen you can go far without an education. When you get into senior positions then it makes a difference and by that time you would have worked on your social skills. One of the few places that with the right education you can go far because you don’t need the old boy network to give you a leg up.

Subtheme: Attitude and Early Experiences

The intent of the question regarding attitude and early experiences was to determine whether attitude and early experiences have contributed to the low number of minority women in positions of authority or supervisor positions in information technology. All participants felt attitude and early experiences play a major role in the underrepresentation of minority women in leadership roles, citing reasons such as the ability to learn from others, positive childhood experiences, and quality childhood development. According to the participants, the choices people make usually form during childhood and are driven by their exposure to education, sports, science, and technology. Participant 10 noted,

Early childhood experiences have great impact on what career a person wants to pursue. When a child is involved in sports, this encourages partnering, strategizing, and relationship building. Historically, boys became involved in sports at an early age and learned this skill, whereas girls are not encouraged to engage in any activities that honed those particular skills early on. I think we will see a shift with the new soccer generation.

Participant 1 added, “As the old saying goes ‘You are what you see’ and so if you grow up around strong women, those experiences will have an impact on your choices.”

The study respondents discussed the impact of early experiences on career advancement in information technology. Participant 14 noted,

I have found that if the childhood experiences were bad it has held women back from working hard in their education and career path and they don’t take advantage of the opportunities presented to them as fast as a person with positive childhood experiences.

Participant 19 shared,

In my case, I think it just wasn’t important to hold leadership roles. The role models in my life were homemakers, with no aspirations to have a life/job/etc., outside of the home. There was no push to attain these leadership roles. From my own experiences, I saw that men fulfilled those roles.

Participant 20 added,

For minority women, nobody expects much and so the young women in the community may have kids at a young age and be social-economically disadvantaged. Once they leave the education track, it is hard to get out and get the education and choose a different path. It becomes a self-perpetuating situation. The cycle begins as the mothers don’t encourage their kids. It feeds on itself. For those that break the cycle and when they don’t have role models, hit the first obstacle and give up. Looking behind them it is a huge leap.

Subtheme: Gender Role Fulfillment

The intent of the question was to determine whether gender role fulfillment has contributed to the low number of minority women in positions of authority or supervisor positions in information technology. The majority of participants agreed girls learn to pursue nurturing roles, whereas boys receive encouragement to be providers in society. The traditional role of minority women has been to support and nurture. Minority women must contend with male egos and society’s perception of the role of minority women. Participant 1 shared,

Traditionally, Black and Hispanic women have advanced in administrative, human resources, and office management roles more than in [information technology] as these roles appear to be less threatening. This is perhaps because of the notion of Black and Hispanic women being ideal for nurturing or support roles versus a role requiring more strategic or analytic skill that is found in [information technology].

Participant 10 noted,

In our society, girls are still not raised to believe they can enter certain fields. The idea of a glass ceiling for women still exists. The feeling of having to choose career over family still exists, so early childhood development plays a large role. Girls are still given dolls and toys to develop them as nurturers while boys are given toys to be providers. I believe if we started much earlier developing our girls’ attitudes toward being both nurturer and provider, we’d see a shift of more minority women in leadership roles.

Participant 12 attributed the question of gender role fulfillment to the male ego and male reluctance to be led by a woman:

In my opinion, it is not gender role fulfillment, it is the male ego. I feel that men do not want to be led by a woman or proven wrong by a woman and will fight 150% to get their idea through over a woman’s. From my experience in college sports, I am fully aware of how men competed. My female teammates and I have been beaten at the sports and have in turn beaten men in sports and this can translate to the work environment. Even though the fight is on another level, the ego is still there and a man will do anything to not lose to a woman.

Participant 14 discussed the different roles women must fulfill, noting,

Women will take a back seat to a man and downplay their education. The work place can become psychotic and chaotic for a woman because we forget our role at times. We have to remember to change from being a mother to a wife to a [chief executive officer].

Theme 2: Resources

The second core theme derived from the focus responses was resources. From the resources core theme, four subthemes emerged: career advancement, enhancing diversity efforts, personal factors, and professional factors. Analysis of the subthemes resulted in an understanding of the challenges experienced by the participants attempting to advance in the information technology field. The intent was to determine recommendations and advice from the participants to overcome issues related to career advancement, diversity efforts, and personal and professional factors for pursuing leadership roles for minority women.

Subtheme: Career Advancement

All 20 participants contributed insightful answers and 18 of the respondents noted categories of advice in the information technology field such as not trying to prove oneself to others, working hard, knowing oneself, being upfront, learning to assimilate, being persistent, overcoming barriers, being goal-oriented, always being prepared, being professional, staying focused, and not being afraid. Participant 12 noted,

Strive for excellence in what you do. In technology, it’s common to feel as if you’re not good enough. Both men and women are affected by those feelings but men appear to be better at masking this. I have had White, male, excellent coworkers express their nervousness about starting new projects. I think that the difference here is that women are more isolated and often find that there is no one to talk to.

Five respondents noted categories such as obtaining the required knowledge and being confident as additional strategies minority women can use while attempting to advance in information technology. The results of the question are important to the study because they indicate insight into behaviors other minority women could use immediately and on a daily basis upon accepting a position in information technology and support career advancement in information technology. The findings are consistent with the responses shared about the determination, dedication, attitude, and perseverance of the participants to succeed in their position and in information technology. Participant 4 responded,

I believe that conquering this type of industry will take a very creative approach. Whenever an industry was exclusionary the approach has been to create a new type of force that both compliments and differentiates enough to be looked at seriously. Diverse and ethnic groups should take this approach to increase their leverage in this industry. Create external teams for designing and developing new technology, leveraging all that is being learned along the way. New ideas that have been tested and researched and properly presented always gain acceptance. To be taken seriously you have to be serious.

Participant 14 contended to be successful in information technology, minority women should

Perform a self-assessment. Ask yourself questions that include “Do you like who you are?” “Do you like spending time with yourself?” Make sure you enjoy what you want you do, not just at work but also at home. With family and friends, a positive relationship will spill over into your work life. Make some connections with senior management and introduce yourself to someone new; those are baby steps to becoming closer to where you see yourself in your career. Getting out of your comfort zone is the key and you may need to leave some people behind when you go on this career journey because not everyone can go where you’re going.

Respondents discussed attributes such as a positive attitude, self-assured, hard working, and self-confident as factors in successful career advancement. Participant 1 noted, “It is important to stay positive and always be prepared for the worst and recognize that risk management plays a key role in your success.” Participant 2 added, “It is important that I always approach projects and assignments with confidence and a can-do attitude!” According to Participant 13, “Success can be obtained by hard work and consistent performance. You must speak out when you feel like you are not being treated with fairness.” Participant 15 advised minority women must

Be self-assured. Don’t let society dictate what you can do. Don’t let others control you and who you want to be. Be assured about who you are and what you can do. Be strong about who you are and then nothing can touch you.

Subthemes: Increased Diversity Efforts

All 20 participants contributed insightful answers to the question on the impact of increasing diversity efforts in information technology organizations and 15 of the respondents noted categories such as increasing recruitment efforts, cultivating morals and values instilled from the home, not judging others, gaining self-confidence, and more exposure to the work environment as ways to increase the number of minority women in information technology leadership roles. Participant 8 shared,

When there is more equity and parity, potential employees and clients would perceive the organization differently and more people would be given hope and inspiration. The people who occupy those positions may hold them due to experience and are more than qualified to do the job but I would like to see that open up for senior management positions as well.

Two respondents noted the creation of a more multicultural community-type environment would be effective in enhancing the diversity efforts. Participant 6 noted,

I think having more diverse women in power positions in [information technology] would be good and would enhance diversity efforts. One reason is these women could be role models that more junior ethnic women could look up to and with these women in power they would be able to develop and run programs to enhance diversity efforts.

The findings are important to the study because increasing the number of minority women in information technology departments could result in a more comfortable atmosphere for everyone in the work environment through the modification of male attitudes. The findings are important to the topic under investigation because increasing the number of minority women in technology, although the affirmative action law is no longer in effect, might serve to diminish the existing inferiority complex between White males and women. Participant 15 shared,

You aspire to representation and that there is a chance to progress if you join the organization. Leaders can break barriers and others can follow. For people to be able to follow you, they first need to know that there is someone to follow and believe that this is not something that is unrealistic.

The view of minority women as equals in the workplace and diversity in relation to women in leadership could become more acceptable than it is in the workplace. Participant 5 contended, “Diversity gives organization greater visibility of minorities in key positions and encourages others to investigate opportunities that are available to them.” Participant 2 added, “Participation from an increased number of minority women can enhance diversity efforts through their contribution of experiences, perspectives, and creativity.”

Subthemes: Personal Factors

The study responses indicated personal factors important to minority women in pursuing leadership roles in information technology. Participants noted personal factors depend on age, maintaining a work-life balance, working relationships, and job satisfaction. One respondent shared minority women seeking a leadership role must have key traits such as assertiveness, courage, and level-headedness. Leaders must be trustworthy, reliable, compassionate, work for the good of the entire team, and value working relationships. Participant 1 contended, “I think that answer would vary widely depending on the age of the respondent. My top three factors are work-life balance, working relationships, and job satisfaction.” Participant 6 advised personal factors include the following:

1. People can trust you;

2. You stand by your word;

3. You practice what you preach;

4. You care about people;

5. You want to see others do well;

6. You’re not just about personal gratification but instead are about having the entire team do and look well;

7. You value your relationships with people;

8. You are nice to people;

9. If necessary, you can also have the “hard” talks and can still be honest even when it is not comfortable; and

10. You treat others the way you want to be treated.

Focus and determination. All participants indicated their lived experiences contributed to their success in advancing in information technology positions. The lived experiences varied along the lines of pursuing additional education and skills training, knowledge sharing, improving interpersonal skills, being a team player, and taking on high-profile assignments to advance their careers. At least half of the respondents noted because information technology is a male-dominated field, minority women had to work harder at advancing to their current position than White women or White males.

The findings indicated the participants shared the characteristics of confidence, self-motivation, self-determination, and the attitude to succeed. Participant 12 noted, “My ownership of my career and taking advantage of using my everyday skills in the work place. Some would call that selling out but I call it selling in.” Participant 4 further illustrated the opinion:

The experiences that have contributed to my success for advancing to my top position in information technology include staying focused on the need to learn the technology and to be the “go to” person for answers to questions from both internal and external clients. Understanding that being a team player and knowing who the players are and what they do is very important. I recognize the fact that people like to be acknowledged and always contribute new ideas and am ready to act upon them if accepted. It is important to continuously support management objectives and commit to the companies mission and vision in your work ethics.

Participant 15 noted the need to demonstrate technical ability:

I have never given up on my career goals and let people look beyond the fact that I am a woman. If you are remotely attractive in information technology, it is assumed that you are stupid or should be at home. If you are a black woman in [information technology], it is assumed that you are fulfilling a quota. I have produced good-quality work that has helped me advance to the top of my position. I am aware that there is a glass ceiling. There are not that many people who look like us in those positions. In my department, we only have two senior managers who are women of color.

Interpersonal skills. Interpersonal skills such as communication, being a team player, and risk taker were key factors in the career advancement of the participants.

Participant 2 noted,

I share my experiences in programming, business, and systems analysis. I conduct technological due diligence by working closely with colleagues and others alike, having the ability to listen and to advise, and in general, working continually on people skills to be a more effective manager, co-worker, and partner.

Participant 1 discussed the importance of being prepared to take risks by indicating, “One of the successes was that each time I am given at-risk or failed projects, I turn them around and successfully deliver despite the circumstances. This has helped my professional development.” Participant 10 added,

My career has been helped by my willingness to take risks. In order to advance you must be visible to upper management. As a result of this, I take on difficult projects or those assignments that are more “high profile” or have an impact on the company’s bottom line.

Respondents discussed the impact of having a mentor on career advancement. Participant 11 noted, “My access to mentors, increasing my level of business communication skills, and joining professional associations has helped my lived experiences in [information technology.” Participant 17 noted a similar perspective, adding,

What has been significant for me has been being mentored by White men who understand the game and how it works. I had to adapt to how the corporate world expects me to act and that has played a key role in my success in [information technology].

Subthemes: Professional Factors

The intent of the question was to determine the professional factors important to minority women in pursuing leadership roles in information technology. Participant 2 noted, “Important professional factors include: opportunity for advancement, exercising and honing their skills, compensation to provide the independence of being able to support the family if needed.” Participant 6 noted the following professional factors:

1. You must work hard;

2. Strive for professional excellence;

3. With your work, you don’t just want to get it done . . . you want to do it superbly;

4. You should realize the importance of the entire team in getting things done;

5. You must be able to listen to others and acknowledge that you don’t know it all;

6. You should know how to delegate;

7. You must have excellent organizational skills;

8. You should have excellent communication skills;

9. You have to be able to write well;

10. You facilitate well;

11. You over communicate; and

12. You are prepared.

Theme 3: Potential Actions

The third core theme derived from the interviews regarding the focus questions was recommendations. The three subthemes included affirmative action, changes the participants have made to enhance the information technology environment, and recommendations for improving occupational barriers for minority women. The following sections include an overview of the subthemes that fall under the core theme of recommendations.

Subtheme: Participant Contributions

Of the 20 participants, 4 respondents noted mentoring as a change made in the workplace, whereas 5 noted encouraging others and being role models were changes enforced in the work environment for minority women. Participant 2 noted, “I am one, an example and a role model for other minority women, a mentor, and a contributor to the information technology environment.” Participant 6 added,

I believe I definitely have enhanced the environment just by being me! I have been able to hold some very high, visible positions of power and have excelled in those positions. With this, I have broken down stereotypes and barriers and given people the opportunity to realize that I am more like them than I am different.

Two respondents noted sharing experiences with others and three indicated talking, motivating, and inspiring were changes made in their work environments. Participant 14 contended,

I have learned not to give up and not to allow anyone’s opinion of me and what I do to achieve my goals influence my decisions. People can see that I can do it by being myself and making every opportunity count, taking advantage of all training, classes, mentor advice, asking for help from someone that may not have believed in you, and taking a chance at something that may be hard or scary. I hope that will help the next person believe they can do it also. It is important that after you have achieved, you must help the next person.

The remaining respondents noted changes such as recruiting and treating others with respect. Participant 11 noted, “Those already in the field should: (1) reach out to new recruits; (2) provide interview tips and resume reviews; (3) be a member of a diversity council, which supplies information on the roles and concern of minority women.”

These findings are important to the study because participants have experienced and acquired knowledge of the concerns faced by minority women. The participants have taken on the role of the transformational leader versus a transactional leader within organizational settings. Transformational leadership includes an idealization of influence, individualized consideration, inspired motivation, and intellectual stimulation, whereas a transactional leader practices active and passive management by exception and contingent rewards. Following are relevant comments from the participants.

Subtheme: Affirmative Action

Of all participants, 15 contended affirmative action did not have an influence, whereas 3 were unsure whether affirmative action mattered in the workplace. Participant 19 noted,

Today, I do not believe affirmative action plays a role. I think your qualifications are what get you in to those positions. However, in the early 1970s, I do believe they helped get many women and minority groups into these leadership roles.

Participant 9 noted, “I have not experienced that in 30 years. Senior management was predominantly male. The women who made it were in the organization for many years and worked their way up to prove themselves in management.”

Two respondents noted affirmative action has helped women substantially in the workplace. Participant 11 shared,

I believe affirmative action required companies to provide opportunities to minority women, who would not have been available otherwise. It allowed doors of opportunity to be open and the requirement was for women to prove they had the skills and the ability to fulfill the task.

Participant 2 added, “I believe that affirmative action has contributed tremendously in helping minority women achieve leadership positions.”

Subtheme: Recommendations

The intent of the question on recommendations question was to determine the participants’ advice and opinions of information technology department processes and procedures to improve the hiring and promoting of minority women. The intent of the question was to determine recommendations from participants regarding the need for leadership in information technology departments to consider a diverse or multicultural occupational environment including minority female managers.

All 20 participants shared insightful recommendations for agencies to improve occupational barriers for African American, Asian, and Hispanic women. Topics of recommendation included recruiting, mentorship programs and programs reflecting diversity, providing childcare facilities to single parents, establishing criteria for promotions, and adding more training. Participant 15 noted,

Children and students should be able to broaden their scope of where they go and adopt programs within the schools so there are education and opportunities. Companies should go and recruit there and also have programs that focus on how to work in that environment. Children must go to school and while there learn how to survive and navigate in the system. A key skill that most kids are not encouraged to do is learning from parents and community. Companies must set up programs that help students adjust to that work environment. The programs should focus on minorities.

Participants noted recommendations for recruitment and implementing mentoring programs, including programs specially designed for minority women. Participant 5 shared, “We should develop mentor programs and internal news articles regarding opportunities that exist for minority women.”

The participants recommended giving minority women more opportunities for promotion and shared recommendations departmental leadership could implement to reduce the occupational barriers faced in the workplace. Participant 9 indicated, “Organizations should have a recruiting process. If organizations have a recruiting process then it looks inviting to minority women to consider working in that organization.” Respondents noted recommendations such as minority women sharing more of their experiences and knowledge with other women, providing childcare facilities for single parents, such as those offered by some corporations, obtaining a strong promotional process, and assessing a candidate’s performance on topics such as academic competency and technical abilities. The leadership of recruiting departments should add more training and require the same expectations of Whites (especially males) as Asian, Hispanic, and African American women.

Participants also identified recommendations regarding the comparison of race and gender differences as mirror reflections of the community. The findings resulted in personal and professional recommendations for the leadership of information technology organizations to assist minority women in managing and overcoming the occupational barriers faced on the job. Participant 2 proposed the following:

We do not have to not disclose ethnicity or gender at all. Of course, gender can usually be identified by the name of the person but maybe recruiters can include a percentage of minority women’s resumes to potential employers.

Participant 6 suggested, “Management and human resources should encourage the successful recruits to provide feedback, which in turn can be documented within articles that could be distributed as helpful career references and resources.” Participant 11 advised minority women to have a positive mental attitude and integrity to aid in career advancement:

I think that they should not focus on the barriers but instead stress and push all of the positive things that lead to being a successful leader. Being a person of integrity, being a person that says what she does, being a person that people can trust and believe you will stand by your word, being a person that can get along with everyone, being a person that knows that the work matters but most importantly that people matter. The barriers will be there but you can’t focus on them. You have to stress all the positives that will help you become successful.

Summary

The purpose of the current qualitative phenomenological study was to assess the experiences of 20 minority women in information technology leadership roles in the San Francisco Bay area of California. Selection of the participants for the current phenomenological study occurred based on their lived experiences and knowledge associated with the phenomenon concerning barriers contributing to a low number of minority women information technology leaders. The location of the study was the San Francisco Bay area of California. The focus of the current research study was women of African American, Hispanic, and Asian descent who are able to achieve management level positions despite the glass ceiling. Chapter 4 included an analysis of the data derived from the interviews and the presentation of the data through summaries and textural descriptions in an effort to share the lived experiences and perceptions communicated by the study participants. Chapter 5 includes a summary of findings, the interpretation of the analysis, research study recommendations, the significance of the study, and recommendations for future research derived from the data gathered in the study.

CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The purpose of the current qualitative phenomenological study was to explore the perceived lived experiences and barriers contributing to a low number of minority women functioning as leaders in information technology for 20 professional women of African American, Hispanic, and Asian descent working in companies in the San Francisco Bay area of California. The low numbers of minority women in information technology leadership roles as a result of the societal perceptions of the lack of role models, academic preparation, attitude, and early experiences indicate the underrepresentation of minority women in information technology leadership roles. The use of interviews with the participants served to document their perceptions on how to decrease the barriers contributing to a low number of African American, Hispanic, and Asian women information technology leaders. Selection of the purposive sample of participants was based on their lived experiences and knowledge associated with the topic under investigation.

Chapter 5 includes an overview of chapters 1 through 4. The primary purpose of chapter 5 is to introduce the study findings with a discussion of the major themes emerging from the analysis. Chapter 5 includes a summary of the interpretations of the analysis and recommendations based on the research that might help the leadership of information technology departments increase the number of minority women in leadership positions. The results of the study might help in the creation of a platform for future researchers working in this area.

Overview of Chapters

Chapter 1 included the identification of the problem of the history of minority women in information technology and an exploration of why the topic is important in a study of leadership and in the advancement of minority women. Chapter 1 also included an explanation of the significance of the study and its implications to leadership, the nature of the study, and the theoretical framework identified for the study. Chap

Chapter 1 concluded with a detailed overview of the problem and the purpose of the study, the limitations, the delimitations, and the definitions of words or phrases used most often in the study.

Chapter 2 included a review of the literature surrounding the theoretical frameworks, recommendations, and strategies for the leadership of information technology departments. Chapter 2 included a discussion of a number of theories, recent statistics, and gaps in the literature concerning minority women in information technology. Chapter 3 included an explanation of why a qualitative phenomenological approach was the most appropriate research design for the current study. Chapter 3 included details regarding the categories of participants selected for the study and an explanation of the significance of the categorization in providing a valid assessment of perceptions existing in the San Francisco Bay area of California. Chapter 3 also included a discussion of the sample of the study and data collection methods. Chapter 4 included an analysis of the data derived from the interviews.

Data analysis involved the use of IPA to develop common experiences, perceptions of the lived experiences, and knowledge associated with the phenomenon concerning barriers contributing to a low number of minority women functioning as information technology leaders. The use of the IPA methodology helped in understanding how people can make sense of life experiences in terms of meaning (Breakwell, 2004). Publication of the transcripts in their entirety will not occur to avoid the risk of a breach in confidentiality (Baptiste, 2001). Three major themes emerged from the research data gathered during the interviewing process. Analysis of the themes helped to form the composite description of the meaning and essences of the phenomenon studied. The study included 20 interviews with participants who are senior business analysts, technology managers, project managers, senior programmers, lead quality assurance analysts, and chief information officers within the San Francisco Bay area.

Chapter 4 included the presentation of the data through summaries and textural descriptions in an effort to share the lived experiences and perceptions communicated by the study participants. Chapter 5 includes an overview of the study findings with a focus on the following research question: How do women employed in the information technology field report that the societal perceptions of a lack of role models, experience, or academic preparation have contributed to the underrepresentation of minority women in leadership roles in information technology? Chapter 5 also includes the study’s conclusions, the interpretation of the analysis, and recommendations from the study, along with recommendations for further research.

Summary of Findings

Denzin and Lincoln (2005) defined qualitative research as a multi-method approach involving a naturalistic setting and attempts to make sense of or interpret phenomena in terms of their meanings to the participants involved. An assumption in the current study was consistent themes would emerge throughout the interviews. Based on the analysis of the data, a final composite description of the phenomenon consisting of three core themes emerged from the patterns of responses to the interview questions posed to the participants. A saturation point occurred with regard to the qualitative data obtained through the interviews; any additional data collected would be redundant. Three core themes resonated, in varying degrees, throughout much of the interview dialogue.

The theoretical framework included an examination of the importance of the experiences of minority women with a discussion of perspectives, issues, and controversies in the field with regard to affirmative action, stereotypes, and discrimination. The study involved the identification of the following themes with respect to the problems or issues associated with barriers contributing to a low number of minority women in technology: types of barriers, resources, and potential actions. The conclusions include details regarding the experiences associated with the barriers and lived experiences contributing to a low number of minority women technology leaders from Themes 1 and 2. The second section of the conclusions includes a discussion of the leadership methods, practices, or styles used to deal with or solve the issues from Theme 3.

Theme 1: Types of Barriers

Minority women experience barriers within their occupational environments. Because White males dominate the information technology profession, a lack of diversity, hiring, and promotion are possible barriers. The study included an analysis of the barriers minority women face in achieving managerial roles in information technology as a result of uncomfortable classroom environments (Allan & Madden, 2006), the leaky pipeline (Blickenstaff, 2005), and the perceived glass ceiling (Todd et al., 2005). A discussion of the chilly classroom climate exists as a basis of bias and discrimination of girls and women because of existing societal perceptions (Allan & Madden). Blickenstaff introduced the metaphor of the leaky pipeline that takes the female students from secondary school through university to a career in STEM. The glass ceiling is an impediment precluding women from rising as high as their male colleagues, even if the male colleagues are less talented (Todd et al.).

Various reasons exist in support of the low percentage of women leaders in information technology, including the idea women do not have as high an interest in the hard sciences as men and, as a result of educational experiences, women are less likely to pursue a career in information technology (McKinney et al., 2008). Women are less comfortable working in a predominantly male environment (McKinney et al.). Women face additional barriers in achieving advancement because of the societal responsibility of maintaining a home and raising children. The study findings indicated the theme of types of barriers dominated in the lived experiences of the participants, contributing to the issues minority women face in advancing to the top of their position in information technology.

Eighteen of the 20 participants noted they face barriers in information technology teams because the field is male dominated. Two respondents reported facing the barriers of prejudice and having to prove oneself to achieve a promotion. Other categories noted by individual participants included being overlooked, feeling isolated because of their gender, race, lack of experience, and stereotyping. The results of the study served to confirm the theory minority women experienced a lack of opportunity and a lack of hiring and promotion into information technology management positions as a result of the glass ceiling. The glass ceiling is an impediment precluding women from rising as high as their male colleagues, even if the male colleague is less talented (Todd et al., 2005). Woo’s (2000) definition of the glass ceiling is based on previous research and indicates “minorities are distinctly disadvantaged in being promoted to positions with notable managerial authority due to advantages for Whites in the corporate hierarchy” (p. 74). Minority women have a disadvantage in being rewarded for work and obtaining promotions to management roles with authority (Takei & Sakamoto, 2008).

An analysis of the study participants’ shared experiences resulted in findings similar to those included in the theory of discrimination. Women of all racial groups tend to work predominantly in roles historically geared toward females and receive lower pay than men of all racial groups (Dickerson, 2006). In comparison with minority men and White women, Latina and Black women predominantly occupy lower-level positions of female occupations, with White women working in higher status positions and, as a result, in higher paid managerial positions. One third of college-educated Black women have clerical jobs, and women of color tend to face difficulty in trying to advance their careers and move to higher paying jobs (Dickerson).

Gender Barriers

Gender differences exist in considering the pursuit of an information technology career within the higher echelons of the information technology industry. Frize (2006) posited gender issues can serve as a limitation to women’s participation in science and engineering careers because women’s contributions went unnoticed throughout history. Research indicates the problem still exists. Although females consider pursuing careers in the information technology field, they eventually pursue less profitable and less prestigious soft computer professions (Zarrett & Malanchuk, 2005). All 20 participants noted they faced barriers in information technology departments because the field is male dominated. Five respondents mentioned not receiving career opportunities and being treated as insignificant because they are women. Almost half of the respondents mentioned the need to prove oneself as a barrier faced on the job.

The respondents indicated minority women tend to be challenged more and have had to work harder to obtain the respect and influence that comes with their management role. Two participants noted the old boys system still exists in the workplace and had experienced stress associated with the demands on the job because they were women. Women also faced the barrier of being less than equal to men. The challenges to women achieving leadership roles in technology have included the lack of female role models, gender bias, and a lower salary in comparison with their male counterparts (Todd et al., 2005). In the history of computer science, women have had involvement in software development, academia, and applications. The study participants confirmed the perception of women as weaker physically, emotional, and intellectually and less capable of maintaining leadership roles.

The study also indicated women face barriers relating to family matters. Women face barriers to advancement because of getting pregnant, starting and maintaining family, childcare situations, and being available to handle family issues. The responses confirm the literature finding that during the Second World War, women were programmers and software developers at companies such as Ferranti. Since the war, women hear they can do a man’s job, have a family, and manage a successful career, yet women still have difficulty making the same strides as their male counterparts because of gender bias and the personal choices made in their efforts to balance career and family (Todd et al., 2005). The study findings include confirmation of the theory of discrimination. The culture in information technology companies does not function to support the advancement of women and tends toward the exclusionary (Catalyst, 2007). Women face balancing the demands of work and career with family and personal responsibilities and feel isolated (Catalyst, 2007).

Racial Barriers

The current study was to determine whether racism was a barrier for minority women. Each individual respondent had her own unique thoughts about the question. Of the 20 participants, 17 noted they face racial barriers in information technology because the field is White male dominated. Three respondents noted the relationship between racial prejudice and gender prejudice was one and the same. Five respondents indicated equality in the workplace and race functioned as barriers to their career progression over the years.

The respondents indicated African American, Asian, and Hispanic women grew up in cultures with women subservient to men in the home environment and in the professional environment, manifesting as women lacking the leadership required to maintain information technology roles. The racial differences resulting from culture, leadership style, a lack of mentors, and barriers are a challenge to career advancement. The cultural differences in the workplace can result in increased misunderstandings and issues in communication. Minority women have had to prove their skill sets and overcome negative stereotypes that exist in the male-dominated information technology field. The findings indicated women face barriers to achieving job advancements because of a lack of hiring, promotion, training, mentoring, and networking.

Feminists have identified men’s monopoly of information technology jobs as an important source of their power and women’s lack of technological skill as an important factor in women’s dependence on men (Toffoletti, 2004). Parents and teachers perceive computing to be a male-dominated field and communicate working with computers is for men, providing the encouragement for boys to improve their computer skills, but not developing the same interests in girls (Cahoon, 2003). Hence, boys have an advantage over girls; girls develop an interest in computers later (Cahoon).

A man’s success often derives from his abilities and skill, whereas women’s success is often the result of luck (Lemons & Parzinger, 2007). The stereotypes function to frame the assumptions and measurement of women’s performance (Ramsey & McCorduck, 2005). An employee with a traditional gender stereotype of a woman’s capabilities will view the success of a female in a predominantly male position as a result of luck or government legislation such as the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission or affirmative action, rather than her ability to perform her job role (Lemons & Parzinger). The findings from the data are important to the study because the responses indicated confirmation of racism as a barrier for minority women in information technology leadership roles, according to the lived experiences documented from the 20 participants.

Academic Preparation: Education and Training

The study findings indicated exposure to different educational methods and presentations results in well-rounded professional and social skills and a lack of education has a negative impact on communication and the technology knowledge base. A lack of minority students and the underachievement of students in the U.S. higher education system hinder career advancements (Rovai, Gallien, & Wighting, 2005). The achievement of additional college degrees, enhanced technical skills, and taking advantage of networking opportunities might help to increase the ability of women and members of minority groups to succeed on their individual characteristics

The number of undergraduate students entering information technology careers in the United States and Canada has declined and fewer females enter information technology careers than do males (Nicholson et al., 2007). In the United States and other industrialized nations, research has indicated the existence of unsupportive educational environments reinforced by obstructive societal norms and expectations contributing to the lack of interest and involvement of minority females in information technology (Nicholson et al.). Although students might stay in school, attention to ensuring science graduates are successful in their chosen careers, regardless of gender and race, is lacking (Preston, 2004). Blickenstaff (2005) introduced the metaphor of the leaky pipeline that takes the female students from secondary school through university to a career in STEM.

The current research study included an examination of the issue of minority female students leaving the information technology profession specifically. Female students leave the information technology pipeline when they apply to colleges and universities as well as before graduating from postsecondary courses (Blickenstaff, 2005). Blickenstaff asserted the leakage results in a “sex-based filter that removes women from the stream and leaves men to arrive at the end of the pipeline” (p. 359).

Attitude and Early Childhood Experiences

All participants indicated attitude and early experiences play a major role in the underrepresentation of minority women in leadership roles and cited reasons such as the ability to learn from others, positive childhood experiences, and quality childhood development. Eighteen participants contended the choices people make usually form during childhood and are driven by exposure to education, sports, science, and technology. Parents and teachers perceive computing to be a male-dominated field and communicate working with computers is for men, providing the encouragement for boys to improve their computer skills, but not developing the same interests in girls (Cahoon, 2003). Boys have an advantage over girls; girls develop an interest in computers later (Cahoon).

Gender Role Fulfillment

The intent of the question regarding gender role fulfillment was to determine whether gender role fulfillment has contributed to the low number of minority women in positions of authority or supervisor positions in information technology. The majority of the participants indicated girls learn to pursue nurturing roles, whereas boys receive encouragement to be providers in society. The traditional role of minority women has been to support and nurture. Minority women must contend with male egos and societies perception of the role of minority women.

Theme 2: Resources

Advice for Participants

All 20 participants contributed insightful answers to the question regarding advice for participants. Participants advised approaching tasks with confidence and a can-do attitude, staying positive, always being prepared for the worst using risk management, taking a creative approach that compliments the team, seeking out mentors and establishing visibility, and not being deterred by barriers or stereotypes. The study findings indicate minority women seeking a career in technology should take on difficult or high-profile assignments and projects with a bottom-line impact, resulting in increased exposure and recognition by senior management.

Participants noted minority women in information technology aspiring to a leadership role should try to prove themselves to others, work hard, know themselves, be upfront, learn to assimilate, be persistent, overcome barriers, be goal oriented, prepare themselves, be professional, stay focused, and not be afraid. Two respondents noted categories such as respecting oneself and others, obtaining knowledge needed, and being confident as additional strategies minority women can use in attempting to advance in information technology organizations. To achieve and maintain effective leadership skills, leaders must work with teams to communicate the vision of the organization, inspire others to work together to create a new vision, evaluate and monitor the progress of projects, and understand the current reality by paying attention to situations as they occur (N. L. Luftman et al., 2004).

Increasing Diversity Efforts

Organization leaders often struggle to manage and embrace successfully employee differences that result in conflict, division, and dissolution or spark creativity, integrative insights, and innovation (Harrison & Klein, 2007). All 20 participants contributed insightful answers to the question regarding increasing diversity efforts. Five participants indicated diversity results in the encouragement of different experiences, expectations, perspectives, creativity, ideas, and approaches. Two respondents noted a diverse workforce results in an understanding of the struggles of the different groups and assists in educating management and establishing programs to achieve a balanced workforce. Study findings indicated an increased number of women of ethnic backgrounds will enhance the technology industry with new and innovative products, services, and methodologies. Twenty percent of respondents contended the creation of a more diverse work environment would be effective in enhancing diversity efforts.

A diverse workforce results in greater visibility of minorities in key positions and encouragement for others to investigate existing opportunities. An increased number of diverse women in power positions in information technology would help to enhance diversity efforts because the women could be role models for junior minority women to look up to. Leaders should be capable of developing and implementing programs to enhance diversity efforts. Applicants will have the confidence to apply for jobs and minority female students and recent college graduates will derive inspiration from the opportunities available to them in companies perceived to have a diverse workforce. Social interaction with various cultures might help minority women to be more open with one another and others and increase the awareness and acceptance of cultural diversity.

The technology sector is driven by continuous development. The development of people and managing talent is as important as providing technical training and development (Catalyst, 2008). Hiring and retaining women results in an increased talent pool (Desvaux et al.). Desvaux et al. contended research indicates the need for greater diversity among organizational leaders because organizations with a higher percentage of women in management positions have better financial and organizational management than companies with a low percentage of women in management positions. Gender and cultural diversity enables the leadership of organizations to recruit and retain talented workers and meet organizational goals.

Personal and Professional Factors

Participants contended personal factors depend on age and include maintaining a work-life balance, working relationships, and job satisfaction. One respondent reported minority women seeking a leadership role must have key traits such as assertiveness, courage, and level-headedness. Leaders must be trustworthy, reliable, and compassionate, work for the good of the entire team, and value working relationships. Important professional factors include opportunity for advancement, exercising and honing their skills, and compensation to provide the independence of being able to support a family if needed.

Although men were substantially more likely than women to identify a liking for technology and computers as a key motivator for pursuing a career in information technology, women cited job security, ease of entry, and flexible work hours as primary reasons for entering the information technology profession (McKinney et al., 2008). Fewer women remain in the profession as a result of a lack of attachment to the information technology profession based on career dissatisfaction and the intention to leave (McKinney et al.).

The lived experiences of the 20 participants indicated the perceptions of their experiences about their roles as team leads, department managers, project managers, and technology group directors, resulting in insight into their lives as minority career women. The participants recommended minority women should increase their education and decision-making abilities to move into information technology leadership positions. Participants attributed their success in information technology to accepting the opportunities given and being prepared to take a certain amount of risk.

Theme 3: Potential Actions

Recommendations for Action

All 20 participants noted recommendations for breaking the glass ceiling phenomenon in information technology departments and shared insightful recommendations for the leadership of technology organizations to improve the barriers to career progression for minority women. Topics of recommendations included providing mentorship programs reflecting diversity, increased recruiting of minority female candidates, providing childcare facilities to help working mothers, creating and communicating the criteria for promotions, and on-the-job training. Of the 20 participants, 15 noted more girls and young women should receive encouragement to pursue education and training. The leaders in the field should take on the role of mentor and contribute to the information technology knowledge base, share experiences and advice, participate in panels and forums, and encourage younger women to enter the industry. The leaders can make efforts to break the stereotypes and barriers and give others the opportunity to realize the similarities are greater than the perceived differences.

Participants noted increasing representation of diversity on the job; establishing criteria for promotions; women being accepted as a total package based on skills, ability, experience, attitude, and intelligence; giving minority women more opportunities; and promoting and supporting more minority women and recommended the leadership of information technology companies could implement diversity to reduce the occupational barriers faced in the workplace. Five respondents noted recommendations such as minority women sharing more of their experiences and knowledge with other women, providing childcare facilities for single parents, obtaining a strong promotional process and assessing it on topics such as academic competency and technical abilities, adding more training, and requiring the same expectations of Whites (especially males) as African American, Asian, and Hispanic women. The research study included an outline of detailed recommendations for leadership in information technology organizations.

Affirmative Action

Minorities and women might face employment discrimination and gender discrimination because of the disparity of group skills (Meire, Pennington, & Eller, 2005). An analysis of the literature indicated a reduction in minority women impacts the ability to be hired and earn career advancement opportunities. Biased practices of group skills could result in more discrimination within the workplace and hence a lower return from investing in job-relevant skills among many minority women. Participants gave their opinions regarding whether affirmative action functioned to help minority women achieve senior leadership positions. The questions on affirmative action were in relation to the problem of the study and generated a range of responses. Nine participants did not see an impact of affirmative action on their career choice or advancement.

Of the 20 participants, 4 reported affirmative action was not applicable to helping women achieve status. Three contended affirmative action did not have an influence, and 2 were torn between whether affirmative action mattered in the workplace. Eleven participants indicated affirmative action helped women substantially in the workplace. Although affirmative action programs have resulted in help for minorities and women in the past, minorities and women should increase their level of education and enhance their developmental skills to obtain abilities to help them to move into leadership positions. Participant 14 posited minority women can no longer depend on affirmative action or consent decrees to achieve top executive or chief-level positions. The significance of the above findings for information technology organizations is the implementation of affirmative action is no longer required in the workforce. Minority women must rely on their own abilities for career advancement to perform in a leadership capacity. Regardless of affirmative action policies, minority women should have the skills and training to attain management positions in information technology.

Research Question

The study included the use of the following research question: How do women employed in the information technology field report that the societal perceptions of a lack of role models, experience, or academic preparation have contributed to the underrepresentation of minority women in leadership roles in information technology? Three major themes comprised the composite description of the meanings and essences of the phenomenon under study. The study included an examination of answers to the research question and indicated the absence of role models was discouraging to female minority students wanting to pursue a career in information technology but not knowing what to expect and not having the opportunity to learn from other minority women in the field. The lack of representation prevents individuals from considering and pursuing opportunities in the chosen field.

According to participants, the choices people make usually form during childhood and are driven by their exposure to education, sports, science, and technology. The majority of participants contended girls learn to pursue nurturing roles, whereas boys receive encouragement to be providers in society. The traditional role of minority woman has been to support and nurture. Minority women have to contend with male egos and society’s perception of the role of minority women. The participants recommended giving minority women more opportunities for promotion and shared recommendations departmental leaders could implement to reduce the occupational barriers faced in the workplace.

The study participants noted the impact of culture and stereotypes on minority women’s ability to lead information technology departments because minority women traditionally learn to be subservient to male family members at home. The subservient behavior reflected in the professional environment can manifest as a lack of leadership skills. Study participants noted issues of equality in the workplace and race hinder their advancement and confirmed racism is a barrier for minority women in information technology leadership roles.

The study participants noted a lack of academic preparation resulted in a lack of opportunity for exposure, communication, and increasing the knowledge base in information technology. Adequate academic preparation results in a quicker progression up the career ladder than having to learn through experience in the field alone. A lack of education in turn results in decreased communication and knowledge base within technology because individuals lack well-rounded professional and social skills gained via exposure to different educational methods and presentations. A lack of academic preparation results in limited exposure; poor academic preparation and focus function to prevent minority females from competing in information technology. Participants attributed the lack of academic preparation to culture and environment, noting friends, teachers, and mentors led students to believe women do not have a natural inclination to take technology classes because science is unsuitable and boring. The study participants discussed the lack of adequate education as a barrier to career progression and indicated children should receive exposure to all aspects of education at an early age.

The study respondents discussed the impact of early experiences on career advancement in information technology. All study participants contended attitude and early experiences play a major role in the underrepresentation of minority women in leadership roles, citing reasons such as the ability to learn from others, positive childhood experiences, and quality childhood development. For example, involvement in sports helps to encourage partnering, strategizing, and relationship building. Historically, boys become involved in sports at an early age and learn these skills, whereas girls do not receive early encouragement to engage in activities that hone such skills. The participants recommended giving minority women more opportunities for promotion and shared recommendations for departmental leadership to implement to reduce the occupational barriers faced in the workplace.

Inferences of the Study

The outcome of the research study is consistent with the findings of current literature, as outlined in chapter 2. The results of the research indicated confirmation of the literature premise of information technology as a male-dominated field. Feminists have identified men’s monopoly of information technology jobs as an important source of their power and women’s lack of technological skill as an important factor in women’s dependence on men (Toffoletti, 2004). Parents and teachers perceive computing to be a male-dominated field and communicate working with computers is for men, providing the encouragement for boys to improve their computer skills, but not developing the same interests in girls (Cahoon, 2003). Boys hence have an advantage over girls, whereas girls develop an interest in computers later (Cahoon, 2003).

The study findings include confirmation of the theory of discrimination. The culture in information technology companies does not include support for the advancement of women and tends to be exclusionary (Catalyst, 2007). Women face balancing the demands of work and career with family and personal responsibilities and feel isolated (Catalyst, 2007). The study also included confirmation of literature findings indicating stereotypes are a barrier to minority women pursuing a leadership role in information technology. A man’s success often derives from his abilities and skill, whereas women’s success is often the result of luck (Lemons & Parzinger, 2007). The stereotypes function to frame the assumptions and measurement of the women’s performance (Ramsey & McCorduck, 2005).

The current research includes support for the premise exposure to different educational methods and presentations results in well-rounded professional and social skills and a lack of education has a negative impact on communication and the technology knowledge base. Although students might stay in school, attention to ensuring science graduates are successful in their chosen careers, regardless of gender and race, is lacking (Preston, 2004). Blickenstaff (2005) introduced the metaphor of the leaky pipeline that takes the female students from secondary school through university to a career in STEM

The data from the research resulted in insight based on the lived experiences and perceptions of participants in relation to diversity. Study findings indicated an increased number of women of ethnic backgrounds might help to enhance the technology industry with new and innovative products, services, and methodologies. Twenty percent of respondents contended the creation of a more diverse work environment would enhance the diversity efforts. Diversity can result in tangible implications for an organization’s performance because companies with several women in senior-level positions are likely to show better financial performance than companies without women in senior-level positions (Desvaux et al., 2008). Hiring and retaining women functions to increase an organization’s talent pool (Desvaux et al.). Research indicated the need for greater diversity among organizational leaders because organizations with a higher percentage of women in management positions have better financial and organizational management than organizations with a lower percentage of women managers (Desvaux et al.). The presence of gender and cultural diversity helps organizational leadership to recruit and retain talented workers and meet organizational goals.

The Impact of the Findings on the Study’s Population Demographic

The initial interest in the research study derived from a perception of the low number of minority women in leadership roles in information technology in the United States. Further research into the topic resulted in the identification of scholarly studies regarding the phenomenon, and the elements discussed included the theories of diversity, the chilly classroom climate, the leaky pipeline, and breaking the glass ceiling. Prior studies indicated minorities and women are sometimes at a disadvantage when it comes to attaining supervisory authority or managerial positions (Takei & Sakamoto, 2008).

As a minority woman in a leadership role in information technology, the researcher provided special insight into the phenomenon. The unit of analysis for the current research study included 20 African America, Asian, and Hispanic women in information technology leadership roles in the San Francisco Bay area. Respondents indicated that inequality in the workplace and race has hindered advancement over the years because barriers of entry are difficult for women of color. Minority women must prove themselves and their technical skill and expertise. The findings from the data are important to the study because the responses indicated confirmation of racism as a barrier because minority women have two strikes, race and gender. Participants noted a perception that women in positions in which they were the only minority female on the team were fulfilling a quota and felt challenged more than their peers.

The study results indicated minority women pursuing a career in information technology did not know what to expect and did not have the opportunity to learn from other minority women in the field. The study participants noted a lack of women of color in information technology and indicated the women in the field do not have time to mentor others coming up the ladder because they must continue to prove themselves in their roles. The study findings indicated low expectations for minority women; hence, young women in the community might have children at a young age and experience social-economic disadvantages. Once minority women leave the education track, they experience difficulty choosing a different path and the situation becomes self-perpetuating. The cycle begins because mothers do not encourage their children; women who break the cycle do not have role models and give up at the first major obstacle.

The majority of the participants contended girls learn to pursue nurturing roles, whereas boys receive encouragement to be providers in society. The traditional role of minority woman has been to support and nurture. Minority women must contend with male egos and society’s perception of their role. The following section includes recommendations on how minority women can overcome the barriers to career progression.

Research Study Recommendations

The participants recommended minority women must increase their education and decision-making abilities to move into information technology leadership positions. Participants advised minority women must stay true to themselves, know their value, and be strong and confident enough to bring the values to an organization. Minority women seeking a career in technology should take on difficult or high-profile assignments and projects with a bottom-line impact resulting in increased exposure and recognition by senior management. The data indicated diversity could ensue from hiring, promoting, socializing, and giving job advancements and career mobility to minority women on the information technology career path. A diverse environment functions as a welcoming environment that is a reflection of the community and sets the tone for employees to feel comfortable in achieving senior-level positions (Patrick, Bruch, & Jehangir, 2006). Minority women could aim for management roles in information technology if the overall representation in leadership positions increased.

The study findings indicated social interaction with various cultures would help minority women to be more open with one another and others and increase the awareness and acceptance of cultural diversity. Participants contended organizational leadership must first get minority women interested in the field of technology by incorporating technology into unexplored areas of interest that speak to women’s interests. Examples include leveraging technology in the areas of fashion, biology, education, or dance. A lack of interest results in a lack of participation. Increasing involvement and implementing the programs will require the thoughts and ideas of other women.

When teams receive projects that result in fun and innovative products and services, organizations benefit from the outcomes. Respondents indicated the implementation of corporate enterprise high school and college mentorship/protégé programs and mentorship programs for current employees and encouraging individuals to join women’s diversity groups and associations might help to enhance diversity efforts. Individuals can widen their knowledge base by reading trade magazines on diversity and technology, attending conferences, and further training to enhance their existing skills set.

Theme 1: Types of Barriers

The work environment. The leaders of information technology departments should cultivate welcoming environments resulting in opportunity for growth. Minority women should feel able to freely participate in team building and networking activities within the work environment. Information technology leadership should provide and communicate the availability of educational reimbursement incentives, provide assessment training for career advancement, and organize sessions for practical preparation for promotions. The participants contended the leadership of information technology organizations should adhere to strictly enforced guidelines established for hiring and promotion. Enforcing these suggestions would ensure fair treatment for all employees.

Opportunities, hiring, and promotion. The hiring and promotion process should include an accounting of the individual’s merits including experience, education, and technical skills. The organization’s recruiting procedures should include literature and career advice for the Asian, African American, and Hispanic communities. The availability of mentoring programs and assessment training would help to enhance skills. A potential candidate’s race or ethnic background should not hinder an individual’s career opportunities because each individual could be an asset to the organization (Locke, 2006). Based on the results of the current study, minority women should increase their education, social skills, and decision-making abilities to advance into senior positions (Rovai et al., 2005). Minority women should take positive steps to further their education, potentially resulting in increased job knowledge and skills to transfer or promote into higher positions of authority. Achieving positions of authority would involve the judgment of women’s decision-making skills and ability to take control of situations.

Training and education. The study participants recommended the leadership of information technology departments provide and communicate the availability of educational reimbursement incentives, provide assessment training for career advancement, and organize sessions for practical preparation for promotions. The research findings indicated the leaders of information technology organizations should consider career advancement for minority women to “recruit, retain, reward, and promote minority and female employees” (Gathers, 2003, p. 15). Women have high priorities to gain leadership positions if they receive training and mentoring, which could result in increased success and job satisfaction (Culpan & Wright, 2002).

More girls and young women should receive encouragement to pursue education and training. The leaders in the field should take on the role of mentor and a contribute to the information technology knowledge base, share experiences and advice, participate in panels and forums, and encourage younger women to enter the industry. The current leaders can make efforts to break the stereotypes and barriers and give others the opportunity to realize the similarities are greater than the perceived differences. Employers should reach out to new recruits, provide interview tips, and resume reviews and allow access to a diversity council with information on the roles and concerns of minority women. For minority women to succeed, education must start at an early age. Women must have an interest in technology, an aptitude for technology, determination in the face of rejection and insecurity, an understanding of how men compete, support, a network, and a strong work ethic.

Role models. As leaders, minority women must endeavor to contribute new ideas and be ready to act upon them if accepted, continuously support management objectives, and commit to the company’s mission and vision in their work ethics. Participants contended the key factors contributing to their success in information technology include a strong work ethic and focus on the task at hand. One participant noted women should look for famous role models who are succeeding in ways that inspire and motivate. Women should look for a variety of qualities in different women and put those together to comprise the ultimate role model for use as a measure of one’s goals and aspirations.

Mentors. The implementation of a mentoring program sponsored by the leadership of information technology organizations might help employees gain knowledge sharing. The research indicated companies should include a diverse population, in particular in senior-level positions, and their leaders should sponsor culturally diverse programs for networking and encourage employees to become members of various information technology associations. The efforts would help subordinates to set job advancement goals. Information technology managers should have an open-door policy for subordinates, requiring senior managers to be available. The use of mentoring programs might help subordinates gain ideas for career advancement, enhance their abilities for multitasking, and not be afraid to achieve a senior management position.

Theme 2: Resources

Social and interpersonal skills. Participants contended enhanced social skills help others to gain a better understanding of one’s moral stature, level of knowledge, and competence. Minority female employees must have the ability to listen and advise colleagues and work on people skills to be an effective manager, coworker, and business partner. The respondents indicated minority women must stay focused on the need to learn technology and to be the official or unofficial “go to” person for answers to questions from both internal and external clients. A key to success in information technology teams is to understand the importance of being a team player and knowing who the players are and what they do. Interpersonal skills and forging good relationships are important components.

Theme 3: Potential Actions

Advice for women. The results of the study indicated women must learn to be open and talk to others. Even if an individual does not like dealing with certain people, the skill might allow others to get to know their culture, level of competence, or moral stature. Being accountable for one’s personal life indicates good character and helps others to avoid developing a negative identity of a certain group, which could lead to stereotyping.

Affirmative action. Organizations are not required to comply with affirmative action requirements and consent decrees (Harrington, 2003). Minority women should not depend on race and gender as a means to move up the corporate ladder. Minority women must rely on their own abilities to take professional certifications and exams indicating their abilities to perform in a leadership capacity. Although most participants in the research study indicated affirmative action helped minority women, the majority of the respondents noted minority women should have talent regardless of affirmative action programs.

Strategies to overcome existing barriers for minority women are necessary to overcome issues affecting the information technology environment, such as the lack of diversity, lack of opportunities, lack of recruitment and promotion, and unfair treatment. Allowing a single race or gender to progress up the career ladder only serves to increase racism within the occupational environment (Memphis Educational Computer Connectivity Alliance, 2005). The results of the current research study indicate an individual’s judgment must be based on skills, education, and training. The individual’s merits should be the only factor in identifying and acknowledging individual awareness and removing the barriers minority women face in achieving senior-level positions.

Significance of the Study

Studies of diversity indicate women and minorities are underrepresented in the workplace (Blickenstaff, 2005). One area of such underrepresentation is information technology. Specifically, minority women are underrepresented in leadership roles in information technology in the United States as a result of the societal perceptions of the lack of role models, academic preparation, attitude, and early experiences (Blickenstaff; Esch, 2005). The lack of female information technology personnel results in a reduced pool of information technology professionals and the absence of women in technology leadership roles has repercussions on the economic well-being, productivity, preparedness, and competitiveness of an organization (Diaz et al., 2008).

The research study included an exploration of how women employed in information technology leadership roles report the societal perceptions of the lack of role models, academic preparation, attitude, and early experiences (Blickenstaff, 2005; Esch, 2005) have contributed to the underrepresentation of minority women functioning in leadership roles in information technology. The study included the identification of personal and professional factors important to minority women in pursuing leadership roles in information technology. Under such themes as resources, lived experiences, and recommendations, the research study resulted in insight regarding how to reduce the attrition rate, improve the flow of information to female information technology workers, and make careers in information technology more appealing to minority women. Further research into the topic resulted in the identification of scholarly studies regarding the phenomenon and the elements discussed included the theories of diversity, the chilly classroom climate, the leaky pipeline, and breaking the glass ceiling. Increasing the number of women information technology workers of all racial backgrounds might result in an increased ability for organizational competition in the global marketplace (NCWIT, 2008). The results of the current study indicated areas of improvement needed in organizations and resulted in recommendations for information technology leaders and minority women. The research study also resulted in the creation of a model to educate existing information technology leaders on how to support and encourage minority women to enter and remain in the information technology industry.

The current research study is important to the body of knowledge because it involved the use of a qualitative phenomenological design for the analysis of interviews of 20 minority women of African American, Hispanic, and Asian descent in information technology to explore patterns in the lived experiences and perceived barriers contributing to the low number of minority women in information technology leadership roles. The research study is important to the body of knowledge because the leadership of information technology organizations and future leaders might gain a better understanding of the experiences of African American, Hispanic, and Asian women and acknowledge the contributions of such women as a collective group within the information technology profession. Consideration of the experiences of the minority women interviewed during the study is important for others to understand their own experiences in the workplace as an important part of job advancement. An examination of the minority women’s experiences can result in guidance regarding racial issues and helping others understand issues regarding subordination within the workplace (Berry, 2005; Caldwell & Hunter, 2004).

Suggestions for Future Research

The recommendations of the research study include a need for future research with a focus on phenomenological case studies to enhance the concept of diversity in information technology organizations (Patterson, Cameron, & Lalonde, 1996; Sturz & Kleiner, 2005). Additional phenomenological case studies are necessary in information technology organizations to provide a better understanding of occupational phenomena relating to race and gender issues and understanding various minority groups. The studies could result in the creation of a framework of perspectives and experiences. Diversity in the workplace serves as a competitive advantage by helping recruit and retain talented individuals, impacts the bottom line, opens up marketing opportunities, provides better and varied ideas, and assists organizational leadership in complying with issues of discrimination (Espinoza, 2007).

A diverse workforce results in greater visibility of minorities in key positions and encouragement to others to investigate opportunities available within the organization. An increased number of diverse women in power positions in information technology might function to enhance diversity efforts because the women could be role models for junior minority women to look up to. An organization with diverse personnel might derive an increased market share, whereas an organization with a workforce lacking in diversity might lose market share (Jayne & Dipboye, 2004).

Diversity results in innovation, creativity, improved group interaction, and enhanced organizational competitiveness and serves as a socially acceptable way of addressing gender and race issues (Jayne & Dipboye, 2004). Jayne and Dipboye contended, “In a multicultural society, attempting to increase workforce diversity is simply the right and ethical thing to do as corporate citizens, regardless of the economic implications” (Jayne & Dipboye, p. 410). For globalization, organizations must include a diverse workforce to deal effectively with an increasingly diverse customer base (Konrad, 2003). Leaders should be able to develop and run programs to enhance diversity efforts. Future research studies into increasing diversity efforts could result in enhanced hiring, promoting, and job advancement for minority women in information technology organizations.

The current research study included the identification of new patterns and themes regarding the lack of job advancement and the need to implement mentoring programs within information technology organizations. Future research studies could include an analysis of the requirements for effective mentoring programs resulting in detailed and practical guidelines for minority women in pursuit of a successful career in information technology. The guidelines would begin at the college level so women are aware of where and how to find a mentor.

More research is needed concerning family matters, including the implementation of single parents’ childcare programs for employees and facilities for mothers. Future research will include details regarding how organizational leadership can implement programs to encourage female employees to manage work tasks in line with family commitments and responsibilities. Specific research regarding how female employees can maintain an effective work-life balance might help to reduce the number of women leaving the information technology industry for a career choice perceived to be less demanding than the information technology industry. The findings of the current research study might serve as a basis to expand the body of research and as a comparison with findings from past research.

Summary and Conclusions

The results of the current study will benefit corporate executives and decision makers in information technology organizations. The findings indicate the traditional perception of women is the underlying source for the underrepresentation of women at the senior executive level in the technological arena. The research study resulted in insight into practices influencing internal policies and practices to attract, retain, and reward female employees and enable the effective handling of discrimination cases within an organization. The research study resulted in suggestions for the education of the existing information technology leadership on how to support and encourage minority women to enter and stay in the information technology industry.

The study included the introduction of each theme generated from the research question and an exploration of the relationships between the participants’ responses to the relevant questions from the interviews. The discussion included a focus on overcoming the barriers to information technology leadership roles, improving lived experiences, knowledge sharing, affirmative action, and recommendations for improving the career aspirations of minority women in information technology. The study included a discussion of the impacts on leadership and further research indicated by the results. Increasing the participation of minority women in information technology as a result of the study recommendations would result in increased representation of women in information technology management.

The research study resulted in insight into how to reduce the attrition rate, improve the flow of information to female information technology workers, and make careers in information technology more appealing to minority women. An examination of the body of knowledge explored resulted in suggestions for enhancements to attract high-performing minority women to information technology leadership roles. Understanding the reasons for the exit rates can serve as a defense against attrition and might help to increase the attraction to information technology roles (Cooper, 2003). The analysis of the data from the study resulted in support for the creation of new strategies to serve high school and college students and provide leaders with guidelines to improve the organizational knowledge of diversity (Howard, 2007).

Globalization serves to reduce language barriers, cultural relationships, and time zone differences. New technologies and new organizations emerge as a result of restructuring to meet the needs of globalization and improve performance. As a result of globalization, the leadership of companies must address their work practices and outsource many functions. Government research, government mandates, business plans, policy reports, petitions, and initiatives in education include a call for increased representation of women in information technology. Sevo (2006) purported female participation in the science disciplines mirrors the statement in the Declaration of Independence that all men are equal; women should have equal access to any field of endeavor. The results of the study might help to inform senior management and executives in the United States of the factors necessary to increase the number of minority women pursuing careers in information technology after school and educate management on how to provide support and encouragement for minority women to remain in the information technology industry.

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APPENDIX A: SIGNED INFORMED CONSENT: PERMISSION TO USE PREMISES

APPENDIX B: INFORMED CONSENT: PARTICIPANTS 18 YEARS OF AGE AND OLDER

UNIVERSITY OF PHOENIX

Dear _________________________________________,

My name is ________, and I am a student at the University of Phoenix working on a doctoral degree. I am conducting a research study entitled, A Phenomenological Case Study of the Under-representation of Minority Women in Information Technology Leadership. The purpose of the qualitative phenomenological study will be to explore the lived experiences of 20 professional women of African American, Hispanic, and Asian descent working in companies in the San Francisco Bay Area of California in information technology leadership positions.

Your participation will involve an interview, where you will be asked a series of questions regarding your attitudes, ideas, perceptions, and observations about the topic within your specific organization. In the interview, you will be asked to share openly your personal experiences around the topic of racial diversity and organizational performance. The interview will last for approximately 45 minutes. Your participation in this study is voluntary. If you choose not to participate or to withdraw from the study at any time, you can do so without penalty or loss of benefit to yourself. The results of the research study may be published, but your identity will remain confidential and your name will not be disclosed to any outside party.

In this research, there are no foreseeable risks to you. Although there may be no direct benefit to you, a possible benefit of your participation is a better understanding of how organizations deal with race and racial diversity issues as they relate to performance in terms of work processes, and interactions between workers and work groups.

If you have any questions concerning the research study, contacted at _________ or ________________.

As a participant in this study, you should understand the following:

1. You may decline to participate or withdraw from participation at any time without consequences.

2. Your identity will be kept anonymous.

3. _________, the researcher, has thoroughly explained the parameters of the research study and all of my questions and concerns have been addressed.

4. If the interviews are recorded, you must grant permission for the researcher, _________, to record digitally the interview. You understand that the information from the recorded interviews may be transcribed. The researcher will structure a coding process to assure that anonymity of your name is protected.

5. Data will be stored in a secure and locked area. The data will be held for a period of three years, and then destroyed.

By signing this form in ink, I acknowledge that I understand the nature of the study, any potential risks to me as a participant, and the means by which my identity will be kept confidential. My signature on this form also indicates that I am over the age of 18, I am not a member of any protected category of participants (minor, pregnant woman when considered part of a designated research group of women, prisoner, or cognitively impaired), and that I give my permission to voluntarily serve as a participant in the study described by Eugenia Asante in the Introductory Letter.

___________________________ ______________

Signature of Participant Date

APPENDIX C: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

Background Questions, from which three core themes emerged: family history, expectations, and status of current position.

Background Question Theme 1: Family History

Background Question 1: What is your place in the birth order of your family?

Background Question 2: How many siblings do you have?

Background Question 3: Describe your earliest memories in your family.

Background Question 4: Were males treated any differently in your family than females?

Background Question 5: Describe the relationship between your mother and father.

Background Question 6: What are your earliest recollections of what you wanted to be when you grew up?

Background Question Theme No. 2: Expectations

Background Question 7: What were the expectations from your family in terms of your expected status in jobs?

Background Question Theme No. 3: Status of Current Position

Background Question 8: How long did it take you to achieve your current position from the date you started in information technology?

Focus Questions

Focus Question 1: What types of barriers, if any, have you faced in your career advancement in information technology?

Focus Question 2: What type of barriers, if any, do you believe women face that you do not see men face in your career advancement in information technology?

Focus Question 3: What type of barriers, if any, do you believe that race was the reason that affects career advancement for African American, Asian, or Hispanic women?

Focus Question 4: What experiences have contributed to your success at advancing to your top position in information technology?

Focus Question 5: What advice do you have for other African American, Asian, or Hispanic women to help them succeed at advancing in information technology to help them overcome any perceived barriers?

Focus Question 6: In your opinion, how could an increase in the number of African

American, Asian, or Hispanic women enhance diversity efforts?

Focus Question 7: How do women you feel that the lack of role models has contributed to the under-representation of minority women in leadership roles in information technology?

Focus Question 8: How do you feel that academic preparation has contributed to the under-representation of minority women in leadership roles in information technology?

Focus Question 9: How do you feel that attitude and early experiences have contributed to the under-representation of minority women in leadership roles in information technology?

Focus Question 10: How do feel that that gender role fulfillment has contributed to the under-representation of minority women in leadership roles in information technology?

Focus Question 11: In your own opinion, to what degree, if any, has affirmative action helped African American, Asian, or Hispanic women to achieve senior management level positions within information technology organizations?

Focus Question 12: What recommendations would you suggest for information technology agencies to improve occupational barriers for African American, Asian, or Hispanic women?

Focus Question 13: What personal factors are important to minority women in pursuing leadership roles in information technology?

Focus Question 14: What professional factors are important to minority women in pursuing leadership roles in information technology?

Focus Question 15: What changes, if any, have you made to enhance the information technology environment for African American, Asian, or Hispanic women?

APPENDIX D: MINORITY WOMEN, INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, AND LEADERSHIP

Venn Diagram

APPENDIX E: EDUCATION AND WORKPLACE ISSUES

Venn Diagram

Minority Women in IT Leadership Roles - Education and Workplace Issues

APPENDIX F: WOMEN IN LEADERSHIP POSITIONS

Women in leadership positions in the High Tech industry - Anita Borg Institute (2008)

APPENDIX G: ETHNICITY

APPENDIX H: YEARS OF SERVICE

APPENDIX I: PARTICIPANT AGE RANGE

APPENDIX J: JOB ROLE

APPENDIX K: CODED PARTICIPANT CHARACTERISTICS

PA01

Participant 1 has fond memories of when all her family were at home together and the earliest memories are from the age of 5, when her mother told her that she should not be a stay-at-home like her mother was. The participant’s mother encouraged her to be a career professional, who would be independent, successful, and not have to ask her husband for money. The advice went a long way to shaping who she is now. Participant 1 recalls doing chores around the house with her sister and although her sister would disagree, participant 1 felt that she was given the same education and encouragement as her brothers.

Growing up, the participant’s parents were cordial to one another but not outwardly affectionate and that could be attributed to a cultural difference. Her father was the provider and mother was the center of the home. In elementary school Participant 1 wanted to be teacher and all through middle school and high school was considering becoming a doctor especially as 2 siblings are doctors. Participant 1 worked in India between 1991 and 1999 and it took her 6 years to get to a management position in India. The Participant moved to the United States in 2005 to a different role taking 5 years to become a manager and 7 years to become a director.

PA02

Participant 2 has early memories of playing outside of her grandmother’s house in the yard. Men were the minority in her family; women ran the households because fathers were absent.

Growing up, Participant 2 wanted to be a scientist. The participant’s grandmother was the breadwinner in her house; however her grandmother’s era was a different one as women had to have intense will power to achieve any career success. The participant’s grandmother had high aspirations for her and her mother was not an advocate of “wasting your life working for minimum wage”. Although, the participant’s mother did not give her career advice, her mother supported her education. Participant 2 was enrolled in a magnet school where the students were expected to continue on to college and that made all of the difference to her career path.

Participant 2 began an internship at the age of 19 and completed a Masters degree. The participant started her career at a smaller IT company with less customer or revenue impact. Participant 2 is currently working at a much larger company and feels that she would not have been given as much responsibility as she has now. Participant 2 reached her current position in the company in two years.

PA03	Participant 3 grew up seeing women as achievers but also knew that education was very important to be able to excel within her chosen career. Participant 3 believes that men do get more mercy, but females were encouraged to own a business and go to school for additional job and career training. The overall relationship between the participant’s parents was amicable. The participant’s parents provided supported by attending school programs, and encouraged her to go to college. Although neither one of the participant’s parents were college educated, they believed that she could be successful if she worked hard. At seven years old, Participant 3 knew that she wanted to work for corporate America and had a yearning to work and start her own business. In the fifth grade, at a summer computer class, Participant 3 knew then that she wanted to explore computers. Although the participant’s parents did not speak of a particular role or position to be achieved, her parent’s expectations were for her to excel to the highest level. Participant 3 was initially on a path to become a technical lead, which she did within five and a half years and reached her current position in the company in seven years.
PA04	Participant 4 recalls playing with her sister and helping her mother to cook. Her parents are divorced and although it was an ugly divorce, they remained amicable for the sake of the two children with an attitude of “we divorced each other not our children”. Growing up, the participant’s career choices changed but her goal was always in the entertainment industry. By Junior high school, the participant wanted to be a TV news anchor, which is ultimately what she pursued in college. The participant’s family did not have any expectations of what career path she would take. The emphasis was more geared toward education and both she and her sister were not raised with any limits on what they could achieve. Participant 4 reached her current position in the company in seven years and she has received steady promotions in her career in IT, at a rate of approximately once every 2 years.
PA05	Participant 5 is from a culture where the women care for house but everyone chips on and there is focus on practical life. The participant’s mother was a housewife and her three bothers would do more strenuous chores in the household. Participant 5 grew up in a culture where men were the providers and women took care of the home. Participant 5 has loving parents who both grew up at a time when there were few Filipinos in San Francisco in the 1960s. The participant’s parents were supportive of each other with the same beliefs about family and religion. Growing up, she wanted to be flight attendant because she wanted to travel and be like her father who was in the United States Navy. The goal to be a flight attendant changed when she went to high school. Her mother explained that in the United States you can get an education and go to college and would not have to serve others as a flight attendant and so she decided to go into fashion merchandizing. She got married and had 4 children and at the time was able to develop her skill sets in management. At the time working on the night shift in accounting appeared to be the only to be able retain job and raise a family at the same time. Participant 5 went back to the day shift in 2000 and to a role in online banking management.
PA06	Participant 6 has early memories of being a tom boy, playing with her siblings and living in china town. Her family always stayed local to the area and did not go on vacation making it an insular experience. In her family, males had the responsibility of carrying on the family name and economic survival. The men were in training to go out and conquer the world. The relationship between her parents is at times tense, argumentative, and had alot of conflicts. Her parents appeared to be incompatible but have been married for over 45 years. Participant 6 was not tied to any particular career growing up. Her parents had suggested that she pursue a stable career such like accounting. She was expected to have a career that was stable and secure where she could focus on retirement, with a house, kids, and a husband. Participant 6 eventually learned what she was good at and has been in her current role for 4 years.
PA07	Participant 7’s earliest childhood memories are of a united family spending time together. Growing up she wanted to be a Fashion Designer as well as a recruiter and her impeccable fashion sense is very evident. Her family expected her to excel and be successful and she feels that she has accomplished that. Participant 7 reached her current position in the company in seven years.
PA08	Participant 8 has very good childhood memories and was primarily raised in a single parent household by her mother who always pushed her and her siblings to excel. The participant’s mother was very involved in the children’s early education, making sure that they went to good schools that were usually outside of the area they lived in. Participant 8 was very independent at an early age and had a lot of responsibilities related to school and home life. In high school she lived with her father full-time and while living with her dad, she recalls being forced to move far away from my friends and feeling isolated in high school. This meant however, that she was able to focus on school work and did very well academically in high school. The participant’s father pushed her to excel and she did while feeling the pressure to be responsible and focused whereas it seems that the boys in her family did not have the same amount of pressure. The participant’s parents appeared to have an amicable relationship and got along well enough to share parenting responsibilities. Growing up, Participant 8 wanted to be a singer or entertainer because she has the gift of being able to sing. The participant’s family wanted her to focus on academics and excel in school because being college educated meant that she would have more options than they did. After college, Participant 8 started at a very entry level position in the field in August of 1997. Participant 8 reached her current position in the company in seven years.
PA09	Participant 9’s earliest childhood memories are of a loving and relaxed family and having a lot of fun. The males in her family were pampered more than the females. The participant’s parents separated when she was fairly young but she recalls that she wanted to be a lawyer when she grew up. Her mother was not college educated and also did not have any expectations on her career path. Participant 9 reached her current position in the company in 15 years.
PA10	Participant 10 recalls enjoying Christmas on the beach in Galveston, Texas with her family at four years old. Males were pampered and not given the same level of household responsibilities as the girls in the family. The participant’s family lauded the athletic abilities of the men in the family. The participant’s parents met in high school and were married soon after graduation. The participant’s father was a long shore man by trade and her mother a housewife. They were young parents who basically grew up together and learned about life along the way. Though the participant’s parents were in love, raising 5 children left little time for "dating" each other. The participant’s parents are good friends today with a mutual respect for each other’s differences. After a field trip to a local news station in the 4^th grade and meeting the local weather man, Participant 10 aspired to be a weather girl and in the business of information gathering and reporting. Growing up, Participant 10 did not have any substantive expectations outside of being self-sufficient financially and finding a good job that would make that possible. Participant 10 accepted that she would continue in higher education in order to “get a good job and find a husband - getting a B.A. and M.R.S. at the same time” Participant 10 was first introduced to the technology field and then funneled into the role of a consultant.
PA11	Participant 11 recalls having evening dinner with her family and going to church on Sunday with her grandmother. Participant 10 grew up feeling that the males were given more freedom and wanted to be a Police Officer. The participant was expected to have a career if she was not attending school.
PA12	Participant 12’s earliest memory was laying in a small hospital bed at Children's Hospital in Oakland and getting an elephant and bear shaped balloon from the nurses because she and her younger sister had tumbled down three flights of concrete stairs in the apartment building that they were living at. The two girls were lucky to have survived as the participant’s baby sister had a head injury. Participant 12 was injured as well though not as badly. Males were treated differently than females in the participant’s family. Her parents were very traditional and the boys had chores of taking the garbage out, helping with lawn maintenance, and helping to change the oil in their old bright yellow Volvo station wagon. The girls did everything else such as cooking, cleaning, washing dishes, serving, and picking up after the boys. The girls were responsible for the family's laundry and ironed all of the clothes (including T-shirts), cleaned the bathrooms and toilets, dusted, vacuumed. The girls were responsible for every chore inside of the house that you can think of and Participant 12 always felt it was unfair. The participant’s parents have a very long and loving relationship. The participant’s father is witty, driven, has a lot of patience, will do everything to protect his family, and will get the job done no matter how hard he had to work. The participant’s mother is old-fashioned; very lovable and nurturing and always puts others first; yet, she can be somewhat stubborn about things that she feels strongly about. Together -- through thick and thin -- they have been married 48 years. Growing up, Participant 12 wanted to be a surgeon and 15 years later she got involved in computers ending the dream of becoming a surgeon. The participant’s family, particularly her parents, always said that she would do well because she was driven. There was a time in her young adult life when she distanced herself from the family because she wanted independence and didn't want anybody else to run her life so she ran away from home at a very young age and subsequently was told that she would never succeed professionally. Her goal was then to prove them wrong and so she did succeed and continues to have a close and loving relationship with her parents and siblings. Participant 12 reached her current position in the company in five years.
PA13	Participant 13 recalls visiting her step father's family on Easter Sunday after church. The participant’s interest in computer science began in high school when she worked as a teacher's aide supporting an afterschool program for Oakland unified school teacher's computer training class. The participant’s family always expected her to excel no matter what career path she chose. Participant 13 reached her current position in the company in seven years.
PA14	Participant 14’s earliest memories are of her mother and grandparents taking her to church and family dinners. Growing up, The participant wanted to be in the fashion industry as a stylist or a buyer and her family was very supportive of her no matter what career path she chose.

PA15	Participant 15 recalls a close-knit family and that her dad was always there but it was hard to tell specifically how men were treated at a very young age. The participant remembers that men had a patriarchal image. Her parents had an open and loving relationship and as she got older she saw and understood that her father had many idiosyncrasies. He could come across as being aloof but it was one of his defenses. With her mother, as open and easy going as she was, she was also high strung. Her parents were together 23 years and she could see that they loved each other even though they could not live together. At the age of 13, Participant 15 wanted to be fashion designer and had a passion for dance. Although the participant’s mother is a dancer, she went to a specialized fashion design high school and that explains why she is an IT person with a sewing machine. At 15, she wanted to study chemical engineering and at 19, she wanted to be a lawyer. Both of her parents were artists and were more open although her father was a drill sergeant about school. It wasn’t a question of whether you were going to school because everybody went to college. The participant grew up knowing that whatever path you take; you must do your best and. get through school. Participant 15 reached her current position in the company in seven years.
PA16	Participant 16 remembers playing with her brothers outside. The males in the participant’s family were taken care of whereas the females were expected to be care givers as soon as they were old enough. Participant 16 does not have good memories of the relationship between her parents as they were always fighting and the participant was aware of some physical abuse. Participant 16 did not have any serious thoughts about what her career path would be but the participant knew that she wanted to follow a path that was different from the one her mother chose. Participant 16 reached her current position in the company in 10 years.
PA17	Participant 17 remembers a childhood of fun and enjoyment. Growing up, The participant’s father allowed her mother the independence to do things for herself. The participant’s parents expected her to be an engineer or a doctor and her desire was mainly to be in a good job and be able to advance on her career. Participant 17 reached her current position in the company in 10 years.
PA18	Participant 18’s earliest memories are of going to kindergarten and wanting to be a nurse when she grew up. The participant was expected to have a good job after college and after 10 years in IT, finally felt that she “got it” and started to progress up the ranks.
PA19	Participant 19 is an only child and fondly remembers her fifth birthday. The participant recalls wanting to be a flight attendant growing up and realizes how much things have changed since then. Being an only child, the participant’s family had high expectations.
PA20	Participant 20 recalls standing at the back of her house with her brother and her father taking the family to visit the extended family. The women in the participant’s family were treated differently and the boys were seen as the ones taking the mantle to take over family business. The participant’s parents were a typical married couple where the man is the head of the family and treated differently. The participant’s mother was not his equal because he was always one step above her and her family was what she called a stable boring family. There was no visible display of affection in her family. Growing up The participant wanted to be a doctor because her parents wanted her to but in fact she preferred to study law. Participant 20 reached her current position in the company in 11 years.